


'tiPlli^ 

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Class 
Book. 



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COPWUGHT DEPOSIT. 



AGRICULTURE 



FOR THE 



KANSAS COMMON SCHOOLS 



COMPILED AND ARRANGED BY 



LELAND EVERETT fALL 

Professor of Agronomy, Kansas State Agricultural College 



AND 



HARRY LLEWELLYN KENT 

Principal of the School of Agriculture and Associate Professor 
of Education, Kansas State Agricultural College 



PUBLISHED BY THE STATE OF KANSAS 

STATE PRINTING PLANT 

TOPEKA 

1914 



AGRICULTURE 



FOR THE 



KANSAS COMMON SCHOOLS 



COMPILED AND ARRANCRD BY 



LELAND EVERETT ^ALL 

Professor of Agronomy, Kansas State Agricultural College 



AND 



HARRY LLEWELLYN KENT 

Principal of the School of Agricidture and Associate Professor 
of Education, Kansas Slate Agricultural College 



PUBLIFHED BY THE STATE OF KANSAS 

STATE PRINTING PLANT 

TOPEKA 

1914 



^^^< 

e\^ 



Copyright, 1914, by L. E. Call and H. L. Kent 




MAR 15 1^15 
©CI,Ali9396;3 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction. Why We Study Agriculture 1 

f'HAPTKR 

I. How Plants Are Built 4 

H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. 

II. Roots 7 

H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. 

III. Stems and Leaves 16 

H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. 

IV. Flowers and Fruits 28 

H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. 

V. How Plants Multiply 35 

H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. 

VI. Corn 42 

Cecil Salmon, Assistant Professor of Farm Crops. 

VII. Sorghums 59 

G. E. Thompson, General Superintendent of Substations. 

VIII. Wheat 72 

Cecil Salmon, Assistant Professor of Farm Crops. 

IX. Oats and Other Small Grains 85 

Cecil Salmon, .^sistant Professor of Farm Crops. 

X. Harvesting, Marketing, and Milling Wheat. . 91 

L. A. Fitz, Professor of Milling Industry. 

XI. Legumes 101 

Ralph Kenney, Instructor in Crops. 

XII. Grasses 122 

Ralph Kenney, Instructor in Crops. 

XIII. How Plants AND Animals Are Improved 131 

H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. 

XIV. Weeds 143 

H. F. Roberts, Professor of Botany. 

XV. Soil Formation 149 

R. I. Throckmorton, Assbt-ant Professor of Soils. 

XVI. Soil Water 162 

R. I. Throckmorton, .Assistant Professor of Soils. 

XVII. Soil Improvement 173 

R. I. Throckmorton, Assistant Professor of Soils. 

XVIII. Drainage 183 

H. B. Walker, Drainage and Irrigation Engineer. 

XIX. Irrigation 194 

H. B. Walker, Drainage and Irrigation Engineer. 

XX. Feeding Farm Animals 207 

C. M. Vestal, .A.ssi.staut Profe3.sor of Animal Nutritiou. 
(iii) 



V CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

XXI. Horse Production 221 

C. W. McCampbell, Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry. 

XXII. Beef Cattle 242 

W. A. Cochel, Professor of Animal Husbandry. 

XXIII. Hogs 257 

W. L. Blizzard and A. M. Paterson, Assistants in Animal Husbandry. 

XXIV. Sheep 276 

J. D. Lewis, Instructor in Animal Husbandry. 

XXV. Dairying 285 

0. I'j. Reed, Professor of Dairy Husbandry. 

XXVI. Poultry 302 

W. A. Lippiufott, Professor of Poultry Husbandry. 

XXVII. Diseases of Live Stock 315 

F. S. Slioeideber, Professor of Veterinary Medieine. 

XXVIII. Growing and Caking for Trees 322 

C'. A. Scott, Professor of Forestry 

XXIX. Plant Diseases 332 

E. C. Johnson, Superintendent of Farmers' Institutes, and 
L. E. Melfhers, Instructor in Plant Pathology. 

XXX. Insects on the Farm 345 

G. A. Dean, Professor of Entomology. 

XXXI. Spraying 372 

Albert Dickens, Professor of Horticulture. 

XXXII. Orcharding 377 

Albert Dickens, Professor of Horticulture. 

XXXIII. The Vegetable Garden 404 

Albert Dickens, Professor of Horticulture. 

XXXIV. Beautifying the Home Grounds 416 

M. F. AhearD, Associate Professor of Horticulture. 

XXXV. Birds 425 

R. K. Nabours, Professor of Zoology, and 
J. E. Ackert, Assistant Professor of Zoology. 

XXXVI. Good Roads 431 

VV. S. Gcarhart, Stale Highway lOngincer. 

Appendix 447 



PREFACE 

Agriculture is the basic industry of Kansas. The way 
the farms of Kansas are tilled in the future depends on 
the way agriculture is taught in the schools now. 

Not only, however, is this book intended to make more 
effective the teaching of agriculture in the schools of the 
state, but the amount of material applying directly to 
Kansas conditions should make the book also a valuable 
reference work for the farmer. Because of the widely 
varying conditions in the state, the teacher should em- 
phasize those chapters the subject matter of which is 
of greatest importance in the local community. 

The book was prepared by the college and experiment 
station staffs of the Kansas State Agricultural College. 

Special acknowledgment is due President H. J. Waters, 
Dean W. M. Jardine, and Dean J. T. Willard for advice 
and assistance in the preparation of the book. 

The names of the authors of the chapters are given in 
the table of contents. Unless otherwise acknowledged, 
photographs were supplied by the authors of the respective 
chapters. The subject matter as originally furnished has 
been rearranged for the sake of uniformity and better 
adaptation to the needs of the schools. 

The compilers also desire to acknowledge their in- 
debtedness to N. A. Crawford, Assistant Professor of the 
English Language in charge of the Department of In- 
dustrial Journalism, for expert editorial service in the 
preparation of this volume. 

Leland Everett Call. 
Harry Llewellyn Kent. 

(V) 



INTRODUCTION 

Why we Study Agriculture 

When man first began raising plants and caring for 
animals is not known. It must have been long before 
the time of the most ancient people of whom we have 
record. The earliest farming must have been very simple. 
It consisted probably in scratching up the soil a very 
little with a stick and planting the seed to grow as best it 
could, and finally harvesting a small crop of very poor 
grain or fruit. Men also watched the animals to keep 
them from straying and from being stolen by other men 
or killed by wild beasts. After long ages man learned to 
build inclosures for his live stock and to select the gentler 
and better animals to increase his herds. This was the 
first step toward scientific agriculture. Long before Christ 
was born, men learned to hitch oxen, horses, and camels 
to rough wooden plows, which tore up and loosened the 
soil after a fashion. Probably even before this, man had 
learned to keep the weeds down and to cultivate the soil 
during the growing season. He also learned to select the 
better grains and fruits for seed, and travelers sometimes 
brought home with them the seeds of new plants. Some 
of the earliest lessons man learned about agriculture were, 
first, to save the seed from the best plants, and to select 
the best and gentlest animals to increase his herds; second, 
how better to till the soil and to guard and feed his animals. 

There is no doubt that with such care plants and 
animals improved greatly. Grains, such as wheat and 

: (1) 



2 AGRICULTURE 

barley, and fruits, melons, roots, and vegetables, grew 
larger and more palatable. The cattle, horses, and other 
stock must have changed from small, narrow, bony, long- 
haired, scrubby animals to larger, better-formed, more 
useful live stock. 

After the thirteenth century, parts of the world, espe- 
cially of Europe, became densely populated. With the 
growth in population and the demand for more food, new 
fields were continually opened up. When a field had lost 
its fertility it was abandoned, and another field was cleared 
and cultivated. When all the lands were being used and 
still not enough food was produced, there was great suffer- 
ing, and many poor people starved. 

During the seventeenth century America was colonized, 
and soon food was sent to Europe in considerable quanti- 
ties. About this time corn, which had been used for 
centuries by the Indians alone, began to be used by 
civilized people, the wooden plows were improved, and 
better live stock was produced. But with all these changes 
food still remained scarce. 

It had long been noticed that better tillage produced 
better crops. Many persons began writing about tillage, 
and finally, in 1733, an Englishman named Jethro Tull 
published a book called "The Horse-hoing Husbandry," 
in which he advocated better and more regular tillage, as 
a necessary step in securing large yields of crops. 

The need for cheap food in the eighteenth and nine- 
teenth centuries led learned men in colleges and universi- 
ties to begin studying the problems of agriculture. That 
meant the real beginning of scientific agriculture. What 
these scientists and the farmers working together have 
discovered makes up what we are to learn about agri- 
culture. 

In our study of agriculture we are always to look for 



INTRODUCTION 3 

two things: first, the best method of doing a thing; second, 
the reasons for doing the thing in that way. 

In a very short time we are to learn easily the following 
things, which mankind has learned with much trouble and 
at great cost: 

1. How to produce cheaply larger amounts and a better 
quality of grain, feed, fruits, and vegetables. 

2. How to keep the soil in the best condition for grow- 
ing large crops at the least expense, and how to preserve 
rather than waste the fertility of the soil. 

3. How through better breeding, feeding, and housing 
to produce better live stock, and better live-stock prod- 
ucts, such as eggs, milk, butter, and wool. 

4. How to make the business of farming more profit- 
able and more attractive. 

5. How to make the farmer's home a pleasant and con- 
venient place in which to live. 

6. How to make the neighborhood a desirable place 
morally and socially, as well as an efficient business com- 
munity. 

7. How to cooperate with other farmers and develop 
such a common feeling among farmers as exists among 
doctors, lawyers, merchants, or laboring men. 



CHAPTER I 

HOW PLANTS ARE BUILT 

Plants are the great food makers of the earth. They 
alone have the power to take from air and soil and water 
different materials, which they put together, and from 
which they make food for man and animals. If it were 
not for plants, therefore, man and animals could not live 
upon the earth. 

The Parts of a Plant. All plants of greatest importance 
are made up of four parts : the roots, the stems, the leaves, 
and the flowers and fruits. At some stage in the plant's 
life some of these parts may be missing. In winter many 
trees are without leaves. Certain other plants lose both 
stems and leaves during the winter, at least as far down 
as the surface of the ground. In others, roots, stems, and 
leaves all die at the end of the growing season, as is the 
case with corn, Russian thistle, pigweed, sunflower, fox- 
tail, and crab grass. Some plants, such as winter wheat 
and rye, if their seed is sown in the fall, remain alive and 
green all winter, but die the following summer, after pro- 
ducing their seeds. 

Some plants live only two years. During the first year 
their leaves make food, which is stored up in roots, bulbs, 
and the like; the second season, both leaves and a flower 
stalk are borne. After the seeds are produced, the plant 
dies. Most of the root crops, such as beets, turnips, pars- 
nips, and carrots, are plants of this kind. Onions also grow 
in this way. If the onion bulbs that grow from the seed 

(4) 



HOW PLANTS ARE BUILT 




Plant cells. The large, round 
body in the center of each cell is 
called the nucleus. It might be 
called the engine of the cell. 



the first season are planted the next 

year, they will produce flower 

stalks, will bear seeds, and will 

then die. 

Some plants, such as goldenrod, 

ironweed, and alfalfa, die only to 

the ground, and may continue to 

live through several or many years. 
The Structure of Plants. Though 

plants differ widely in behavior and 

even in appearance, the structure 

of one plant, nevertheless, very 

much resembles that of another. 

Thus, we have the roots going down into the soil, and the 

stem holding the leaves up to the air. The stem and the 
roots are made up of a framework 
of woody tissue. The amount of 
wood differs greatly in different 
plants and at different times of 
the year. Asparagus, for example, 
has very little wood in its stems 
when they are gathered in the 
spring, but later, in the summer, 
when it has grown tall and coarse, 
the stems are very woody. Sun- 
flowers, when young, are soft, con- 
tain no woody tissue, and are easily cut with the scythe; 

by fall, however, they have formed tough, woody stems 

like those of trees. 

Around the outside of young stems and roots, and even 

of leaves, is a protecting layer. On the trunks and roots 

of trees this is called bark, but on leaves, on the first year's 

growth of tree stems, and on the stems of such plants as 




Cells of the potato tuber, filled 
with large starch grains. 



6 AGRICULTURE 

alfalfa or pigweed, it is called epidermis. The epider- 
mis is much thinner than bark, but it serves the same 
purpose — that of keeping the plant from drying out, 
and of making it more difficult for enemies and dis- 
eases to injure the plant. 

Plant Cells. All these parts of plants are made up of 
tiny cells. Each of the cells has a wall, and while it 
is young, and working or growing, it contains a living sub- 
stance called protoplasm, together with some water and 
plant foods. As the cells get older they change in many 
ways. Thus, the cells of the framework become very 
much thicker-walled, the walls become much harder, and 
at the same time the cells grow very long and slender and 
lose their protoplasm. Cells of this kind form the hard 
strings which one sometimes finds in beets and parsnips, 
and which make the stems of alfalfa and sweet clover hard 
and tough and unfit for hay if they are cut too late. 
Some of the cells never thicken their walls very much. 
These are the ones which continue to manufacture food, 
or in which food is stored. The potato is a good example 
of a mass of such soft cells. Almost all seeds of plants are 
made up very largely of such soft-walled cells stored full 
of food. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the principal parts of a plant? How does the length 
of life of these parts differ in different plants? Give examples. 

2. What are plant cells? What do they contain? 

3. How do the cells of a potato differ from those of an alfalfa 
stem? from those of an oak tree? 



CHAPTER II 



ROOTS 

Most of us are surprised when we learn that the roots 
produced in a season by a full-grown wheat plant would, 
if placed end to end, measure a total length of from sixteen 
hundred to two thousand feet — about a third of a mile. 
A pumpkin vine produces fifteen 
miles of roots in a season. Roots 
penetrate the soil, not only in all 
directions, but to different depths. 
Some of the roots lie close to the 
surface, even within two or three 
inches of it, while some of them go 
down to great depths. While many 
of the wheat and corn roots lie in 
the upper soil, in a field with deep 
soil some of their roots will grow 
down five or six feet. These plants 
are comparatively shallow-rooted. 
Pine trees are shallow-rooted, while 
walnuts have long, deep taproots. 
Alfalfa is an example of a deep- 
rooted plant. Its taproots some- 
times grow to a depth of twelve 
or fifteen feet, and perhaps even 
deeper. The roots of bindweed go down from six to ten 
feet, and spread in every direction through the soil. 

Generally roots grow downward, while stems grow up- 

(7) 




Sweet clover plants, showing the 
deeply growing taproots wUch go 
far down into the subsoil to obtain 
moisture. 



8 



AGRICULTURE 



ward. Some roots, however, grow horizontally. These 
usually become propagating roots, and send up stems 
from buds which appear along their length. Tills is what 
the Candian thistle, the field 
bindweed, and the western 
ragweed do. Weeds of this 
kind are hard to kill. Culti- 
vation simply breaks the 
roots into pieces and scatters 
them. From these broken 
pieces buds may start and form 
new plants. 

The Work of Roots. Large 
plants, such as trees, which 
branch widely, generally send 
out roots which spread as f. r 
from the trunk underground as 
the branches spread in the air. 
The roots of all plants servo 
to anchor the plants firmly in 
the soil and to brace them; to 
gather material for food from 
the soil ; and sometimes to fur- 
nish places in which to store 
food. As the corn plant grows 
it sends out great numbers of 
brace roots from the lower joints. Radishes, beets, 
turnips, carrots, and sweet potatoes are examples of plants 
the roots of which are used as storehouses of food. 

How Roots Grow. While the plant is living and grow- 
ing, its roots are constantly getting longer, branch roots 
are being sent out, and new portions of the soil are con- 
stantly being reached in the search for more food. If the 



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Brace roots of corn grow from the lower 
joints of the stem down into the ground, 
and there send out many fibrous branch 
roots. The plant is thus both anchored 
and supplied with soil water by these 
roots. 



ROOTS 



tip of a root is broken off, it will not increase in length, 
but will have to send out branch roots. Branch roots may 
be sent out from almost any part of the side of the root. 
These branch roots increase in length 
just as the main root does. Roots 
increase in thickness by increase in 
the number of cells and by enlarge- 
ment of these cells. 

Roots grow away from light and 
toward water. Sometimes trees grow- 
ing near wells and drains fill and 
choke them with their roots, which 
have grown out in search of water. 

Food for Root Growth. Food for 
the growth of rocts, thcit is, for the 
making of nev/ 
cells, and for 
increase in the 
size of the cells, 
is secured partly 
from the soil, 
but chiefly fror.i 
the upper parts 
of the plant. 
The water and 
the mineral 
matter taken in by the roots are sent up into the green 
stem or the green leaves, where they are used in mak- 
ing sugar and other plant materials, and are then 
sent downward as sap. This sap is carried on out to the 
roots to feed their tiny cells, and to enable them to grow 
and to make new cells. 

Root Hairs. Water and mineral matter can not be taken 




A young wheat plant, show- 
ing the development of the root 
system: c, stem; b, permanent 
roots; c, wheat kernel; d, tem- 
porary roots. 




Canadun thistle spreads by 
means of horizontal propagat- 
ing roots, from which new 
plants come up. 



10 AGRICULTURE 

in through all parts of the surface of the roots. Even the 
smallest rootlets do not themselves actually absorb most 
of the water. Special cells take in the water and dissolved 
minerals. These cells are called root hairs. Root hairs 
are merely very much lengthened, thin-walled cells. One 
end of such a cell is a part of the root, but most of the long 
ceH sticks out from the root, and, as it grows, pushes its 




Roots of corn v/ith root hairs (ma!!iiified). Tiio root hairs do not quite cover the tip 
of the root. Notice how the root grows in a spiral. This is the way in which all roots 
grow if they are not hindered. 

way in among the tiny particles of soil and thus comes 
into close touch with them. Some of these root hairs may 
be one-half or three-fourths of an inch long. Usually, 
however, they are much shorter. Because they do push 
out among the tiny soil particles and come into such close 
contact with the water surrounding the particles, and 
because they have such thin walls, they are well able to 
absorb the water. Root hairs grow only on the youngest 
parts of roots, close to the root tips. It is estimated that 
there are about 25,000 root hairs to every square inch of 



ROOTS 



11 






£0-^ 












% 






A cross section through a root, showing how the root hairs 
penetrate the soil. The dark lumps represent the soil parti- 
cles; the wavy lines represent the soil water; the liyht spots 
represent the air spaces. 



root surface. As 
soon as a portion of 
the root gets older 
and larger the root 
hairs die, and the 
outside of the root 
gets too thick and 
hard to absorb water. 
It is very important 
that plants have a 
large number of 
small roots with 
many branches, since 
these fine roots are 
the ones that have 
root hairs. Many people think that 
breaking off the fine roots of plants 
in transplanting them, or tearirg 
off the fine roots of corn in culti- 
vating it, will do no harm; but W3 
should always remember that any- 
thing which destroys these fine roots 
helps to rob the plant of its proper 
food supply. In transplanting a tree, 
it is well to prune back the big, 
heavy roots. This will cause many 
fine fibrous roots to grow out, upon 
which root hairs are borne. 

What Roots Get from the Soil. 
The great mass of roots which each 
plant has, is necessary in order that 
the plant may get its food from the 
soil. Roots take from the soil great a seedling of com, showing 

. . n ■, . 1 1 •, particles of soil adhering to the 

quantities ot water, and considerable root hairs, which can not be .seen. 




12 



AGRICULTURE 



amounts of mineral matter, such as lime, potash, and 
phosphorus. Both water and mineral matter are 
necessary to the growth of plants. 

The Amount of Water Used by Plants. It requires 
great quantities of water to produce farm crops. A potato 
crop is 79 per cent water; standing green corn is 80 per 
cent water; cowpeas are 84 per cent water; sugar beets are 
87 per cent water; a cabbage is 91 per cent water; and 
lettuce is 96 per cent water. Even the amount of water 
contained in a plant at any one time, however, is a very 
small part of the total amount required to build the plant. 
A corn plant, for instance, has been known to pass nine 
pounds of water through its body into the air in eight and 
one-half hours. In extremely windy, dry weather, it may 
give off fifteen pounds. Not all plants need the same 
amount of water, but all plants take up a weight of water 
equal to several times their own weight. The amount of 
water required to make a pound of dry matter in the corn 
plant is 272 pounds; in sorghum or 
kafir, 306 pounds; in wheat, 507 
pounds; in alfalfa, 1068 pounds. 

Plants Can Not Use All the Soil 
Water. Even in the severest 
drouths, there is left in the soil 
from five to ten per cent of the 
water, which the roots of plants 
are unable to withdraw. The 
amount of this unavailable water 
varies in different soils, being 
greater in a fine loam than in a 
coarse sandy soil. Different plants 
take different amounts of water 
from the soil. Lettuce leaves eight 




Sunflo's-crs 'wastinc the pround 
water that agricultural plants 
should have. They use more water 
than is used by corn or potatoes. 



ROOTS 



13 



or ten per cent of water 
in the soil when it wilts. 
Corn leaves in the soil 
only six per cent of 
water that it can not 
withdraw, while such 
weeds as morning- 
glories can use the soil 
water down to four per 
cent. 

Weeds Waste Water. 
It is well to realize that 
weeds take a great 
deal of moisture from 
the soil every day that 
they live. In fact, more 
water is lost through 
weeds than from any 
other cause. Weeds 
waste the water that 
agricultural plants 
should get. The Rus- 
sian thistle requires 
about as much water 
as dwarf milo. Pig- 
weeds use about as 
much water as corn to make a pound of dry matter. We 
can grow sorghum or millet almost as easily as weeds, 
and they require no more moisture. Therefore, if we 
are to try to save the water which has been stored for 
the use of crops, we must destroy the weeds. 

Storing Water for Plants. Since so much water is 
needed, one of the ways in which the farmer may help 




Root system of kafir, showing how the upper layers 
of the soil are filled with the fine fibrous roots. These 
very numerous roots of the kafir and other sorghums 
enable them to gather water from the soil better than 
most agricultural plants. 



14 AGRICULTURE 

his field crops to grow is to try to store as much water as 
possible in the soil. This may be done by plowing deeply, 
and by keeping the land level, so that the water which 
falls may be held in the soil and may not run off the 
surface. 

Because plants take so much moisture from the soil, it 
is no wonder that a field which has borne a heavy crop 
has little soil water left in the upper layers of the soil. 

How Plants Use Water. The first use of water to 
plants is to dissolve the mineral matter of the soil, which 
is then carried into the plant. Inside the plant, water 
carries the raw material and the foods manufactured by 
the plant to the places where they are needed. Some of 
the water is combined with the carbon dioxide taken from 
the air, to form starch. The minerals are used by the 
plant to build up its cells. Some of them go to one part 
of the plant, some to another. When we burn a plant we 
get a certain amount of ashes, usually not more than from 
two to four per cent of the total weight. These ashes 
represent the mineral matter taken by the plant from the 
soil. Although the amounts are small, some of the 
minerals are absolutely necessary to the life of the plant. 
The most important minerals obtained from the soil are 
lime, phosphorus, potash, magnesia, sulphur, and iron. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How far and how deep may the roots of crops grow? Of what 
advantage to plants is this spread of roots? 

2. Name all the different kinds of plant roots and tell briefly how 
they differ from each other. What kinds of roots have special uses? 
Give examples of plants having such roots. 

3. How do roots get material for growth? What materials do 
they take from the soil? What uses are made of this material? 
Where is it used? 

4. How do roots take materials from the soil? Why is so much 
water taken? What finally becomes of this water? 



ROOTS 15 

5. How do plants differ as to the amount of water they use? Are 
plants able to take all the water from the soil? How is the water 
which plants use stored in the soil? 

6. What are the three principal uses of water in a plant? 

7. What soil minerals are absolutely necessary to plants? How 
may we recover most of this material? How do plants secure it? 



CHAPTER III 



STEMS AND LEAVES 

The stems of plants lift the leaves up into the air, in 
order to expose them to light. Stems also carry raw sap, 
that is, water and mineral matter, upward from the roots 
to the leaves. After the leaves have combined the water 
and the mineral matter with the 
carbon dioxide of the air, the manu- 
factured food, or true sap, is sent 
downward through other parts of 
the stem, to be used by all parts of 
the plant. Stems of some plants 
serve also as places for the storage 
of food. The food may be stored 
in the stem only temporarily or for 
a long time. Stems may serve 
also to propagate the plant, either 
by forming runners above the 
ground, called stolons, as in the 
case of the strawberry and buffalo grass; or horizontal 
stems below the ground, called rootstocks, as in the case 
of Johnson grass. 

Stem Structure. Stems are able to perform these func- 
tions because of their peculiar structure. A cross section 
of any stem will show that it is made up of four principal 
parts: the pith, the woody portion, the cortex, and the 
bark. 

The woody portion of the stem is composed of tough, 

(16) 




Propagating stcmg (stolons) of 
buffalo grass, which take root at the 
joints and form new plants. 



STEMS AND LEAVES 



17 




Underground propagating stems (root- 
stocks) of Johnson grass, from the joints 
of which new plants grow up. 



hard cells, which make the stems stiff and elastic and fit 
them for supporting the leaves and branches. The woody 
part of the trunk is divided into two parts, the heartwood 

and the sapwood. The sap- 
wood alone carries the water 
up from the roots. The heart- 
wood serves only to strengthen 
the trunk. Generally, the 
heartwood is colored, while the 
sapwood is not. In what we 
call "soft- wooded" trees, the 
amount of sapwood is gener- 
ally much greater than that 
of the heartwood. In the Cot- 
tonwood, the trunk is half heartwood and half sapwood. 
In the oak, the heartwood makes up about two-thirds of 
the thickness of the stem. 
In the catalpa, all but two 
or three years' growth is 
heartwood. 

Outside the woody por- 
tion of the stem is the cor- 
tex. We often speak of it 
as bark, but the word 
"bark" should be used to 
describe only the hard, dry, 
protecting layer on the out- 
side of the cortex. The 
cortex is made up of young, 

,, 1 /> 1 Part of the inside of the stem of a plant, highly 

grOWmg cells, and or long, magnified to show the different kinds of cells: 

, , 1 J • n "• cortex; b, fibrous cells; c, cells that conduct 

tubular conduction cells, or plant food; d, cambium layer; e, cells that con- 

, 1 • 1 .1 duct water upward; /, pith. 

duets, which carry the manu- 
factured food down from the leaves to the stems and the 
roots. There are also many cells stored full of food, and 




18 



AGRICULTURE 




Cross section of corn stem, show- 
ing the groups, or bundles, of conduc- 
tion cells scattered through the 
pith of the stem. 



some groups of tough fiber cells, called tho hard bast, 
which help to strengthen the stem. 

How Stems Thicken. Just between the sapwood and 
the cortex of a tree is a layer of small, fragile cells, called 
the cambium layer, which can not be seen without a 
microscope. This layer of cells 
does nothing but use the food 
brought in through the cortex 
from the leaves, to make new cells. 
These new cells are made very 
rapidly during the spring and the 
early summer; those which are 
made on the outside, toward the 
cortex, make new cortex cells, es- 
pecially sap-conducting cells, while 
those which are made on 
the inside, toward the 
sapwood, form new cells 
of the sapwood. There- 
fore, the cambium layer 
is the real growing por- 
tion of the stem. It is 
the cambium layer which 
causes the stem to in- 
crease in thickness. In 
the spring the cambium layer receives plenty of food and 
water, and consequently makes large sapwood cells. Later 
in the season, when the food and water supply grows less, 
the cambium layer makes smaller and smaller cells until 
fall, when it stops growing. 

Such plants as corn, wheat, kafir, grasses, and palm 
trees, do not have stems like those described above. They 
have no solid woody portion, no cambium layer, and no 
cortex. Instead, the whole stem is composed of pith, 
scattered through which are great numbers of groups of 




Single group, or bundle, of conduction cells from 
the stem of corn (highly magnified). 



STEMS AND LEAVES 19 

hard, woody cells and fibers. These groups, or bundles 
of cells, as they are called, carry the water up the stem. 
Bamboos, and most kinds of wheat and other grasses, 
have hollow stems. This kind of stem is stronger for its 
weight than a solid stem. 

Injuries to Stems. If a wire be wrapped tightly about 
the trunk of an apple tree, the tree will finally enlarge at 
that point and the wire will cut almost entirely through 
the bark on the outside of the tree. The reason for this is 
that the food, which keeps on coming down the stem, is 
checked by the wire. That part of the tree above the 
wire, since it gets more food, grows much larger than the 
part below. This cutting off of the food supply that 
should go to the roots will finally kill the tree. Trees 
are also frequently stunted or killed when careless people 
break off large pieces of bark. Breaking off the bark al- 
ways exposes cambium cells, which then die, leaving the 
wood to decay. 

The Storage of Food in Stems. The manufactured 
food on being sent downward through the stem may be 
stored instead of being used immediately. It may be 
stored in the cells of the cortex, or of the wood or pith. 
It may be stored for only a short time during the growing 
season, and later may be used for the production of seeds. 
Com, oats, and kafir use most of their stored food in this 
way. If these crops are cut for fodder, they must, in order 
that their stems may be of greatest value, be harvested 
just before the seeds ripen, when most of the stored food 
will be caught in the stem. For the same reason we cut 
alfalfa and other hay crops before the plants are fully 
ripe. Before the leaves drop from the trees in the fall, 
they send into the trunk the food that they contain. It is 
this stored food that enables trees to start their growth 



20 



AGRICULTURE 



in the spring. Trees cut for posts in August, before the 
leaves fall, decay less rapidly than those cut in the winter. 
The reason is that there is less food stored in the stem 
to attract the germs and soil fungi* that feed on stems 
and thus cause their decay. 




Underground stem, or rootstock, of canna, showing the buds that grow from the joints and that 
produce new stilks above the ground. Notice the great abundance of the large roots that grow out 
from the rootstock. 

Underground Stems. Some plants have peculiar stems 
which grow underneath the ground. Many of the wild 
grasses have stems of this kind, which may be found if one 
will dig them up in the early spring, when they are being 
sent out from the main plant to form new bunches of grass. 
These underground stems serve a double purpose: they are 
storehouses for food ; and they form a means of spreading 
the plant. The underground stems of cannas are dug up 



* Fungi are plants that can not make their own food, and hence 
have to use the food made by other plants. Unlike ordinary plants, 
they lack green coloring matter. Molds, mildews, and mushrooms 
are common fungi. 



STEMS AND LEAVES 



21 



in the fall, are stored through the winter, and in the spring 
are broken into pieces suitable for planting. In the same 
way we use the underground stems of rhubarb to start new 
rhubarb plants. It is the large amount of food stored in 
these underground stems which causes the leaves of rhu- 
barb to grow so rapidly in the spring. The potato is really 
an underground stem. Its eyes correspond to the buds of 
ordinary stems. Those weeds which have underground 
stems spread rapidly, and are very hard to destroy. John- 
son grass and quack grass are examples of such weeds. 




Epidermis, or skin, of corn and of lily, showing the breathing pores, or stomata: g, guard 
cell; s, opening of stoma; c, chloroplasts in the guard cell. 

The great quantities of water taken up by the roots of 
plants are forced upward through the stems and out into 
the leaves through the veins. The important work which 
the leaf has to do is, first, to get rid of the excess of water ; 
and, secondly, to take the mineral matter, some of the 
water, and some carbon dioxide from the air, and com- 
bine them to make true plant food. In order to under- 
stand well how leaves do this, we must know something 
about their structure. 



22 



AGRICULTURE 



The Structure of Leaves. The leaves of green plants 
are covered on the outside by a thin layer of skin, 
f 5 8 or epidermis. This tissue is 

usually made of cells specially 
constructed to prevent the evapo- 
ration of water and the drying 
out of the interior. But in order 
that the plant may get rid of the 




Single stoma cut in two, showing 
the two guard cells, gg; opening of 
stoma, s; air sp^ce beneath stoma, 
a; green leaf cells, c. W hen the air 
outside is moist the guard cells take 
up water, swell, and press apart, 
leaving a pore, or opening, through 
which the water vapor from the in- 
side of the leaf conies out. When 
the outside air is dry, the guard cells 
lose water, become flabby, and lie 
close together, so that there is no 
opening, and the moisture is re- 
tained in the leaf. 




Cross section of leaf of common garden flag, or iris: 
e, upper epidermis; a, palisade cells: c, lower epi- 
dermis; d, water-conducting cells of leaf vein; /, 
fibrous cells of vein; s, food-conducting cells of vein. 
On the outside is the skin or epidermis. Just beneath 
the epidermis are many long cells which stand at right 
angles to it. These are called the palisade cells. They 
contain most of the green chloropksts. The other cells 
in the center of the leaf, as a rule, contain few or no 
chloroplasts. 



excess water, the epidermis has a great many tiny open- 
ings called stomata, through which water may pass out- 
ward in the form of vapor, and air may pass either 
inward or outward. The stomata are provided with spe- 
cial cells, so that the openings may be made compara- 
tively large or may be almost entirely closed. 

A stoma is about one thirty-fourth as large as the 
opening which may be made with the finest cambric 
needle. In order that the stomata may do their work 
properly there must be a great many cf them. The 



STEMS AND LEAVES 23 

number of stomata varies in different plants from 
about 24,000 to about 180,000 to the square inch. A 
single sunflower leaf has as many as thirteen million. 
Although the stomata are very small, their great number 
enables them to get rid of the excess water effectually. 
As a rule, stomata are found in greatest number on the 
lower surfaces of leaves. This circumstance protects 
against the loss of too much water, since the lower sides 
of most leaves are less exposed to the sun and wind than 
are their upper surfaces. 

Inside the epidermis, and between the veins of the leaf, 
are great numbers of very thin-walled cells. These cells 
appear to be green because they contain great numbers of 
tiny green grains. These grains are called chloroplasts, 
and contain a green material called chlorophyll. It is this 
chlorophyll which gives all green plants their color. The 
sickly yellow appearance of some plants, especially those 
grown in the dark, is due to a lack of chlorophyll in their 
cells. 

Chlorophyll is one of the most important substances in 
the world, since only by means of it sugar and starch can 
be made. Because they possess this chlorophyll, green 
plants alone, of all living things, are able to make these 
substances which are so necessary as food for both plants 
and animals. Were it not for the green chlorophyll of the 
plants, therefore, the entire animal world, including man, 
would finally perish of hunger. 

How Plant Food is Made. It is not true, as is com- 
monly supposed, that roots take in the finished food for 
plants. The roots simply gather the raw supplies out of 
which food is made. Most of the food is made in the 
leaves. The water and the mineral matter taken from the 
soil, and the carbon dioxide taken from the air, must be 
sent to the leaves, and there worked over or combined in 



24 



AGRICULTURE 



the green cells of the leaves, to form true plant food. 
This manufactured plant food may then be sent to such 
parts of the plant as need it. The important work of 
manufacturing food from the raw materials is carried on 
only in the presence of light, by those cells of the leaves 
or of the green stems which contain chlorophyll. 

Most of the food manufactured by these cells appears 
finally in the form of sugar, starch, and woody fiber, or 
cellulose. The first food product made by the leaves is 
grape sugar. Grape sugar is soluble in the sap, and hence 
is easily carried to all parts of the plant. Much of the 
food which goes downward to help the stem and the root 
grow is in this form. If the leaves make grape sugar 
faster than it can be used for growth, it is changed to 
starch, and may be stored in the leaves, the stems, or the 
roots ; or the sugar may be sent to the seeds, changed into 
starch, and stored there, as in corn and wheat. It is in 
the form of starch that most plants store their food. In 
sugar cane, however, from which most sugar is made, the 
sugar is stored in the stems. In 
sugar beets the grape sugar brought 
from the leaves is changed into cane 
sugar, which is stored in the large 
roots. We must not forget that the 
plant stores this food for its own 
use, although man has learned to 
take advantage of this stored food 
and use it himself. Because seeds 
contain so much of this food and 
so little hard, woody fiber, they are 
much more valuable as food for 
man or for animals than are stems, 
leaves, and roots. 

In discussing animal feeds, we 




Cells from a moss leaf (highly 
magnified). The network of lines 
represents the cell walls. In each 
of these cells can be seen a consid- 
erable number of chloroplasts. 
Each of these chloroplasts con- 
tains the green substance called 
chlorophyll, by means of which, 
in the presence of sunlis^ht, the 
leaves are able to make starch. 



STEMS AND LEAVES 25 

usually speak of feeds which are composed of seeds or parts 
of seeds, as concentrates, meaning that they contain a large 
proportion of digestible material. The stems and leaves 
are called roughage, because they are coarse and fibrous, 
and contain a smaller amount of digestible material. We 
must not forget that roughage must be cut while the 
plant is green and contains much stored food, and before 
an excessive amount of woody tissue has developed. At 
this time the leaves of the plants are full of food, and 
form a very valuable part of the roughage. 

The Factories of the Plant. In the green cells the 
chlorophyll is held in millions of little green bodies called 
chloroplasts. These tiny green chloroplasts are the food 
factories of the plant. They catch the sun's rays, and 
somehow by their aid, in a way we do not quite under- 
stand, they break up carbon dioxide into its elements, 
carbon and oxygen. This carbon dioxide is a very small 
part of the atmosphere, comprising not more than three 
or four parts in ten thousand parts of air. The air passes 
into and out of the leaf through the pores, orstomata, just 
as it passes into and out of a house through the open 
windows. The carbon dioxide, being perfectly mixed with 
the rest of the air, passes into the leaves. When it comes 
into contact with the green chlorophyll in the chloroplasts, 
it is broken up by means of the light rays, as was said, 
into its composing parts, carbon and oxygen. Likewise, 
the water that comes up from the roots is broken up in the 
same way into the elements, hydrogen and oxygen, of 
which it is composed. These elements, carbon, hydrogen, 
r.nd oxygen, are then combined to form grape sugar 
(glucose), which consists of six parts of carbon, twelve 
parts of hydrogen, and six parts of oxygen. Leaves need 
light to do their work, and they are so arranged on the 



26 AGRICULTURE 

plant as to expose the largest possible number to the light. 
A few plants and young trees grow well in the shade, but 
most green plants must have an abundance of sunlight. 

Buds. Plants which live from year to year and which 
lose all their leaves in the fall must have some way of 
renewing the leaves, else they would be unable to con- 
tinue growth. Before the leaves are lost, the plant forms 
a bud just above the base of each leaf -stem. These buds 
are really growing points; in other words, they are places 
where there is always young, growing tissue, like that at 
the tip of the root, or like the cambium layer of the stem. 

Buds are of two kinds. They may become new leaf- 
bearing stems, or they may produce flowers. In case the 
bud produces a leaf -bearing stem or branch, this in turn 
will bear new buds, which in their turn will grow out. 
into branches the next season, and so the plant grows 
larger. Flower buds do not grow more than one sea- 
son. Their life is ended when the fruit ripens. 

QUESTIONS 

1. During what part of the year do trees produce their new buds? 
Name the different kinds of buds and tell what each kind does. 

2. What are the parts of a stem? What is the work or use of 
each part? How do the stems of corn and kafir differ from the 
stems of trees? 

3. How do stems grow thicker? If a wire be wrapped tightly 
about the trunk of a tree, what effect will it have on the trunk? on 
the roots? Why? 

4. In what forms do plants store food? What plants store food 
in stems? How and for what do plants use this stored food? 

5. How must forage plants be harvested in order to save the 
most food in the plant? When should trees be cut for posts? Why? 

6. Name some plants which have underground stems. What 
are the various uses which plants make of underground stems? 



STEMS AND LEAVES 27 

7. Name all the parts of the leaf which assist in the manufacture 
of plant food, and tell what each part does. What are the raw ma- 
terials used in making plant food? Into what foods are these made? 

8. What gives leaves their green color? Where and in what form 
is this material kept in the leaf? 

9. What materials pass into leaves? What materials pass out 
from leaves? Whatare the reasons for these processes? Describe the 
mechanism which makes this passage inward and outward possible. 



CHAPTER IV 



FLOWERS AND FRUITS 

The buds which produce new stems, or branches bearing 
leaves, renew the growth of the plant year by year. The 
buds of some plants may even fall off and make new plants; 
but among green plants, the buds which are chiefly re- 
sponsible for the form- 
ing of new plants are the 
flower buds. All seed- 
bearing plants have 
flowers of some kind. 
Some of them are very 





The flower of the wild evening primrose, native to 
the rocky hills. In the flower, inside the four large j'el- 
low petals, is a ring of eii^lit stamens, and in the center 
is the pistil, of which there is visible the tall style, which 
is seen bending to the right, with four stigmas at its top. 



The flower of the water lily. All 
the floral leaves are ahke, and are 
very numerous. Just inside the 
wide floral leaves are seen the tops 
of many stamens. In the very cen- 
ter is the piFtil, which can not be 
plainly seen. 



inconspicuous and much modified, but there are certain 
important parts which can always be found. These parts 
are the ones which finally produce the seeds. 

The Parts of a Flower. The flower of the apple or the 

(28) 



FLOWERS AND FRUITS 



29 




peach, of the wild rose or the evening primrose, is a com- 
plete flower; that is to say, all the important parts of a 
flower are present. Around the outer part of these flowers 

is a set of green, leaf-like 
structures. These green 
leaves are called the sepals, 
and all the sepals put to- 
gether make what is known 
as the calyx. The 
colored leaves on 
the outside of the 
flower are called 
petals, and all the 
petals put to- 
gether make up 
what is known as 
the corolla. Just 
inside the corolla 
are some slender, 
hair-like parts, 
with usually red, 
yellow, or brownish knobs, or projections, on 
their ends. These are the stamens. The knobs 
are called anthers, and when they have ripened 
and opened, they give off a dust-like material 
called pollen. In the center of the flower stands 
another slender part called the pistil. The pistil 
has a peculiar end called the stigma. By look- 
ing at it with a hand lens, we may see that it 
generally has a roughened, and often sticky, the^stigma'! 
surface, to which the pollen grains, upon falling "hT p'^oHen 
there, will adhere. The bottom of the pistil is ^^"^" 
called the ovary. If this part of the pistil be opened, 
it will be found to contain tiny green round bodies, called 



The flower of the sweet pea, showing caljTC and 
corolla. The corolla in this flower has a large 
upper petal called the standard, two side petals 
called the wings, and two lower petals joined 
together, called the keel, which surrounds stamens 
and pistil. All legume flowers are very much 
like this. 




The pistil 
and several of 
the stame.is of 
the Easter lily. 
The stamens, 
with the an- 
thers at their 
tops, are 
plainly shown. 
In the center 
is the pistil 
with its ovary 
at the base, 
its iong style, 
and the swol- 
len par t at 



30 



AGRICULTURE 



ovules, which grow into seeds after the flower has been 
pollinated. In peas and beans the ovary grows into a pod. 
Sometimes the ovary becomes very large and fleshy. 
Pumpkins and watermelons are ovaries of this sort. 

How Flowers Differ. Flowers that are pollinated by 
insects, ordinarily have bright colors, which, as a rule, 




Left-hand figure, the flower of the sweet pea opened, with the standard and one each of the 
wing and keel petals removed, showing the stimens and the pistil. Nine stamens, b, are joined 
together in a ring around the pistil, which is concealed except for the stigma, a. There is also a 
single stamen,/, not in the ring. The anthe-s, c, which contain the pollen, are seen. The keel 
petal, e, and the upper and lower parts of the wing petal, dd, are shown. Right-hand flower, 
the flower of the Easter lijy opened. In the center is the pistil, surrounded by the stamens. On 
the outside, some of the petals and sepals are seen. 

wind-pollinated plants lack. The flowers of catalpa, peach, 
and red clover, are bright-colored, but the tassels of corn, 
and the flowers of wheat, of the elm, and of the oak, are 
not. Flowers differ also with regard to stamens and pistils. 
In the peach and the apple, stamens and pistils are 
found in the same flower. The same is true of the flowers 
of wheat, rye, and oats, but the flower of corn is quite 



FLOWERS AND FRUITS 



31 




Ovary of okra plant, opened to show the 
rows of ovules. 



different. A complete stalk of corn has at least two clus- 
ters of flowers. The tassel is a cluster of flowers bearing 
only stamens with their pollen. The ear is composed of 

a multitude of flowers which 
contain pistils but no sta- 
mens. The silks, which are 
borne one from the tip of 
each kernel, and which be- 
come exposed at the ends of 
the husks, are the stigmas of 
these pistils. The ovary, which is found at the base of 
each silk, finally grows into the kernel of corn. In the 
squash or the pumpkin we find some flowers with 
stamens and 
other flowers 
with pistils, 
but no flowers 
with both. The 
Cottonwood, 
some varieties 
of strawber- 
ries, and some 
mul berries 
bear on one 
plant flowers 
with pistils 
only, and on 
another plant 
flowers with 
stamens only. Some flowers, like those of the dande- 
lion, wheat, oats, and barley, habitually self-fertilize; 
that is, the pollen falls on the stigmas of the flov/er from 
which it came. Other plants, like rye, corn, cotton, and 
most of the common trees, especially those in which the 





Staminate flover of corn 
(hip-hlv magnified), showing 
three stamens. 



A tassel of corn in bloom' 
showing the stamens hanging 
down from the staminate flow- 
ers. There are three stamens 
in each flower, and two flowers 
are found growing together in 
what is called a spikelet. 



32 



AGRICULTURE 





Highly magnified portion of a young ear of corn with husks removed, showing the way the silks, 
or stigmas of the pistils, are attached to the ovaries — the kernels. Picture on the left, before fertili- 
zation; that on the right after fertilization, showing the growing kernels with many of the silks 
fallen off. 




The flower of Jhe common red geranium, with calyx and corolla removed, showing how the flow- 
ers of this plant are cross-fertilized. The figure to the left shows the interior of the flower, as it is in 
the bud. The six stamens, with their large anthers, can be seen, but the pistil isi nvisible because the 
style has not yet grown up. The central figure is from a flower which has fully opened. The 
anthers are shedding their pollen, and two of the anthers have fallen off their filaments. Still the 
pistil has not yet grown up, and cannot be polhnated. The figure to the right is from a flower in a 
still later stage. The anthers have all fallen off their filaments. The style has now grown up, and the 
five stigmas have spread out, ready to receive the pollen brought by some insect from another flower. 



FLOWERS AND FRUITS 



33 



wind carries the pollen, such as elm, ash, walnut, oak, 
and hickory, are cross-pollinated. Some kinds of pears 
and grapes, especially, produce few or no fruits if self- 
fertilized. Other varieties have to be planted near them 
to serve as pollinizers. 

Pollination. In order that a flower may produce 
seeds, it is necessary for some of the pollen from the 

anthers to be carried to the 
pistil and to stick fast to 
the stigma. This process 
cf transferring pollen from 
the anther to the stigma is 
known as pollination. When 
corn is pollinated, some of 





rollen grain germinating, show- 
ing the pollen tube, which grows in- 
to the stigma of the flower. 



Young cars of corn, with ^usk' removed, show- 
ing the rows of pistils — the kerueij — ijeari.-.i tlie 
silks, which are the stigmas. 



the pollen is transferred 
from the tassel to the silk. 
The silks may be pollinated 
anywhere along their length. Corn generally sends out 
the tassels before the silks of the ears on the same 
plant appear. This usually insures more or less cross- 
ing, or cross-pollination, as it is called. Plants the 
flowers of which are fertilized with their own pollen 
are said to be close-pollinated. If the pollen does not 



34 AGRICULTURE 

reach the silk, pollination does not take place, and grains 
of corn do not form. When corn sends out its tassels 
in very hot weather, it sometimes happens that all the 
tassels are killed. In such cases, there is no pollen to 
fertilize the silks, and consequently the crop is a failure. 
Fertilization. When the pollen grains fall on the 
stigma, they germinate, and a tiny germ tube sprouts out 
of each one and grows into the stigma, down through 
the long part of the pistil called the style, and into the 
ovary. The pollen tubes often have to grow several 
inches in this way before they reach the ovary. They 
are enabled to do this by the fact that they absorb food 
from the pistil as they grow down. Once inside the 
ovary, the pollen tubes grow toward and into the ovules, 
fertilizing the tiny egg cell that is in each. The fertilized 
egg cell immediately begins to grow into a little plant in 
the midst of the ovule, which in turn grows large and be- 
comes a seed. Only one pollen grain is necessary to fer- 
tilize a single ovule. In corn there are about seven 
thousand pollen grains for every ovule, but, of course, 
much pollen is lost in the wind. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the parts of a flower. Name the divisions of the im- 
portant parts and tell what each division does. 

2. Why is so much pollen produced? Name the different ways 
by which it may be transferred to the pistil. Name at least one 
plant illustrating each method of transfer. 

3. How do flowers differ in respect to their stamens and pistils? 
Give more than one difference. 

4. What is meant by self-pollination? by cross-pollination? 
Give examples. 

5. What is meant by fertilization? Tell fully how it is accom- 
plished. 



CHAPTER V 

HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY 

The Germination of Seeds. A seed of any plant is 
usually made up of two parts: first, a tiny plant or germ; 
second, enough food to support the germ until it has 
grown large enough to make its own food. Some plants, 
such as the bean and the pea, store all the food within 
the germ. In others, such as wheat and corn, most of 
the food is stored around the germ. While seeds are 
ripening, a great deal of water is usually drawn from the 
germ and from the stored food, leaving the seed hard and 
dry. Even after the seed has completely ripened, the dry- 
ing process should go on for some time, in order that the 
seed may keep well until planting time. The tiny plant- 
let lies dormant for a time after it has been completely 
formed, and after the seed has ripened and dried. 

In order that a new plant may be produced from the 
seed, there must be certain conditions which will start the 
germ growing and enable it to use the stored food. These 
conditions are: first, the proper amount of moisture; 
second, air; third, proper temperature. Various kinds of 
seeds differ in their needs. The seed absorbs water, and 
if the temperature is right, cells start working. The stored 
food is changed into digestible form, and is dissolved in 
the water which has been absorbed. It then passes into 
the cells of the young plant, or germ, to be used. The 
oxygen of the air is used in furnishing the energy which 
changes the food into plant tissue and which thus brings 

(35) 



36 



AGRICULTURE 




about growth. None of these things will take place with- 
out a proper temperature. The same kind of seed will 
germinate at different temperatures, 
but there is always a certain tempera- 
ture which is most favorable to prompt 
and rapid germination. This tempera- 
ture varies greatly for different plants. 
Since oats, peas, and radish seed will 
germinate well at comparatively low 
temperatures, they may be planted 
early in the spring. Corn and alfalfa 
seed require higher temperatures, and 
can not be planted so early as oats and 
peas. The sorghums require an even 
higher temperature for germination, 
so that they must be planted later in 
the spring, or even early in the sum- 
mer, in order to secure prompt and 
complete germination. Difference in 
the temperature suitable for germina- 
tion is one of the reasons for planting garden and field 
seeds at different times during the planting season. 

The Seed Bed. When a farmer or gardener prepares a 
seed bed, he should have in mind the fact that he is fitting 
the seed bed to furnish the best possible conditions for the 
germination of the seeds and the growth of the plants. 
Every good seed bed is made of earth which is not packed 
hard, but is loose enough to contain some air. It must not, 
however, be cloddy, or so loose as to dry out rapidly. It 
must have had an opportunity to become warm and 
must contain the right amount of water. When seeds are 
properly planted in such a seed bed, they come into con- 
tact with plenty of water and air, and as the soil is 



Corn germinating. The 
food which starts the young 
plant comes from the endo- 
sperm. Notice that the tap- 
root of the corn comes out 
through the tip of the germ, 
and has already developed 
branch roots, upon which the 
root hairs will grow. The 
other four roots are secondary 
roots. 



HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY. 



37 



warm enough, they germinate rapidly. Before all the stored 
food has been used up, the plant should be taking water 
and dissolved minerals from the soil and its leaves should 
be gathering material from the air and manufacturing food. 
How the Young Plant Grows. As soon as the seed gets 
sufficient water, air, and heat for germination, the stored 
food begins to be carried to the growing tip of the root 
and of the stem 
of the germ. 
The germ begins 
to enlarge. Soon 
the root pushes 
out into the soil, 
and the stem 
begins to grow 
longer, and 
finally reaches 
the top of the 
ground. Small 
seeds which con- 
tain but little 
food must be 
planted nearer 
the surface than 
larger seeds; 
otherwise the 
stored food may all be used before the young plant 
has broken through the ground. Such seeds as alfalfa, 
sweet clover, grass, and turnip seed, must not be covered 
very deep, while the seeds of wheat, peas, beans, corn, 
and squash, which contain more stored food, may be 
planted deeper. The large, thick seed leaves of the 
Lima bean are carried above the ground by the grow- 
ing stem, turn green in the sunlight, and thus not only 



% 




i^ w 


i 




€ff 


■■^ 







See-'.ing leans, shoeing the la^pe seed leaves, which fi rnish food 
for the plai;t ui.t.l tuc lr..e le-ves develop. lu tl.e illiistrution the 
first pair of true leaves is seen above the seed leaves. 



38 



AGRICULTURE 



furnish stored food to the young plant, but can make 
new food with their green cells, which sustains the plant 
until the permanent leaves appear. 

Storing Seeds. When 
seeds have been har- 
vested, they should be 
stored in a dry place until 
the surplus water has 
evaporated from them. 
Seeds should never be 
heaped together in quan- 
tities until thoroughly 
dried. Seeds are almost 
certain to be injured if 
stored in damp places. 
When so stored, they 
are attacked by bacteria, 
or by molds or other 
fungi, which cause them 
to decay. Seeds are 




A potato plant, showing propagation by means of 
underground stems, which bear large tubers. 




Tuberose, a bulbous plant propagating bv the production of new 
b'llbs. Lxr:re roots come oat from the base of the old bulb of last year. 
New bulbs are produced as offsets, and serve to propagate the plant. 



often killed by 
freezing b e- 
fore they have 
become thor- 
oughly dry. 
In general, 
seeds of agri- 
cultural plants 
intended for 
sowing should 
not be exposed 
to tempera- 
tures below 
freezing until 



HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY 



39 




they are thoroughly dry. Sometimes insects injure seeds. 
Sometimes seeds are too old to germinate well. Some 
seeds will germinate several years after they are gath- 
ered, while others must be planted 
within a year or two. (See table 
in the Appendix.) 

Testing Seeds. In order that 
the farmer or gardener may be 
sure that he is always using good 
seed, he should test all seed before 
buying or planting it. He may 
easily test seeds by planting them 
on blotting paper between two 
plates, keeping them barely moist 
and in a warm room; or he may 
plant them in a box of sand or 

Corm of gladiolus: a, new corm 
sawdust. from which thb year's flower stalk 

came; b, tiny corms, or "cormels," 

Spore Plants. New plants are bome as offsets of this year's corm; c, 

r f remnant ot last year s corm. A corm 

formed from old ones in several is solid, while a buib consists of scales, 
ways. All of us know about seeds, and we know that 
they form new plants. Not all of us know, however, 
that the fine dust which comes from a puffball, or the 
powder that makes the under side of some toadstools black 
or brown, serves the same purpose as seed ; that is, it may 
start a new plant. Such tiny bodies are called spores. 
The plants which bear spores never flower or bear seeds, 
but depend upon the spores to form new plants. Some of 
these spore-bearing plants are green and can make their 
own plant food. The green pond scums, or slimes, which 
grow in water, the seaweeds of the ocean, the mosses which 
grow in moist, shady places, and the ferns, are the best- 
known examples of green spore-bearing plants. None of 
these is of very great importance to the farmer. The other 
spore-bearing plants are not green, and therefore can not 



40 



AGRICULTURE 




A catalpa trunk attacked by- 
bracket fungus. The feeding 
part of the fungus is inside the 
tree. The part which comes out 
and forms the bracket is the 
spore-bearing jiart. The spores 
are borne in slits on the under 
side of the bracket, wiiich cor- 
respond to the gills of the mush- 
room. 



make their own sugar and starch. The toadstool, the 
bracket fungus, and the common mold are examples of 
these. These plants depend for their food upon starch 
and sugar manufactured and stored 
by green plants. For this reason, 
toadstools and bracket fungi grow- 
on rotten wood or decaying roots, 
or even sometimes infest living trees 
and destroy them. Black mold grows 
very commonly on bread. Green 
mildew grows on cheese, orange 
peels, and the like. Some plants 
which reproduce by means of spores, 
and which can not make their own 
starch and sugar, get this material 
from live plants, and are called 
parasite^. The wheat rust, corn and 
wheat smuts, the black knot of the plum, and some other 
plant diseases are examples of these. 

Other Ways of Plant Propagation. Another way in 
which plants reproduce is by means of propagating roots, 
as do the bindweed and the Canadian thistle. Other plants 
reproduce by means of underground stems. Of this 
method the tuber of the potato furnishes an example. 
The rootstocks of the canna and those of Johnson grass 
are other good examples of this kind of propagation. Some 
plants reproduce by means of bulbs. The onion, the tube- 
rose, and the hyacinth are examples of bulb-producing 
plants. Strawberries and buffalo and Bermuda grass 
reproduce by means of runners which are sent out and 
take root and grow. Black raspberries form new plants 
from the tips of their stems, which bend to the ground and 
take root. From these points new stems grow up. 

Conditions of Growth. Some plants grow best where 



HOW PLANTS MULTIPLY 41 

the soil is very wet or swampy. Such plants are said to be 
water-loving plants. Others grow best under dry condi- 
tions, and are called desert plants. Farmers have learned 
that some of their crops, such as rice, for example, should 
grow in very wet soil, and that other crops, such as clover 
and alfalfa, will not grow at all under this condition. They 
have learned, too, that the sorghums will grow where there 
is comparatively little rainfall. They know that some 
plants, such as corn, prefer a loose, loamy soil, while 
wheat and buckwheat prefer a more compact soil. 

Plant Culture. The successful farmer is the one who 
understands best how plants grow. He knows the kind of 
soil each crop prefers, and how to manage this soil so that 
the plant's roots may best absorb water and mineral mat- 
ter from the soil, and its leaves may best get the sunlight 
to manufacture food. He has also learned to control the 
weeds, so that the crop is not robbed of soil water, or 
shaded until it becomes too weak to manufacture food. 
Such a farmer also knows how to select and care for his 
seed and to plant it in a suitable seed bed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the parts of a seed? What is the function of each 
part? How are foods stored in the seed? 

2. What are the conditions necessary to sprout seeds? How are 
these conditions provided in the seed bed? 

3. How do seeds differ as to the temperature required for germi- 
nation? Give examples. 

4. Give complete directions for storing seeds. Give reasons for 
your directions. 

5. Why should seed be tested before planting? Give directions 
for testing seed. 

6. What are spores? Give some examples of spore plants. How 
do they differ from seed plants? 

7. Make a list of all the ways in which plants multiply. Name 
at least one example of each kind of multiplication. 



CHAPTER VI 



CORN 



Of the important grain crops grown in the United States 
corn is the only one native to America. All the others have 
been introduced from foreign countries. Corn is supposed 
to have originated in Central America. The Indians were 
growing it when Columbus discovered the New World. 

Corn is the m.ost important cereal crop of Kansas, and 
also of the United States. About one hundred million 
acres, or an area nearly twice the size of the state of 
Kansas, is planted to corn every year in the United States. 




Map of Kansas showing the production of corn, average of five years, 1909-1913. 
One dot represents ten thousand bushels. 

Kinds of Corn. Five different types of corn are of eco- 
nomic importance. They are dent corn, flint corn, soft (or 
squaw) corn, sweet corn, and pop-corn. Pod corn is some- 
times grown as a curiosity, and Japan corn as an orna- 

(42) 



CORN 43 

mental plant. Dent corn is by far the most important 
type, as it comprises most of the corn grown in Kansas as 
well as in the United States. There is a very large number 
of varieties of this type, twenty or thirty of w'hich are 
grown in Kansas. 

In dent corn the endosperm, the part surrounding the 
germ, is of two kinds, the starchy endosperm, and the 
horny endosperm. The starchy en- 
dosperm is mainly in the center of 
the kernel, while the horny endosperm 
lies near the surface. When the ker- 
nel dries out in ripening, the starchy 
endosperm shrinks more than the 
horny endosperm, thus causing the 
corn to dent. 

Flint corn is grown chiefly in the 
New England states, where very early 
Parts of the corn kernel: maturing varietlcs are necessary. 

a, starchy endosperm; b, horny -p,,. . . ii i • i i 

endosperm: e, stem; d, germ; e, Jb imt VariCtlGS USUally dO not yield SO 
root; /, starchy endosperm; g, i i i / 

hull; h, tip cap. niuch as does dent corn, and the gram 

is so hard that flint corn is not so satis- 
factory a stock feed. The starchy endosperm in flint corn 
is very small, and is entirely surrounded by a thick, 
horny endosperm. Consequently, when the corn dries 
out it does not dent. 

Except for being much smialler, the pop-corn kernel is 
very much like that of flint corn. 

Soft, or squav/, corn is grown by the Indians in New 
Mexico and Arizona, and to som_e extent by farmers in 
other dry regions of the United States. It is very soft, 
and the ease with which it can be ground into meal is 
probably one of the principal reasons why it has been 
grown by the Indians, though it is thought by some to be 
more drouth-resistant than other kinds. 




44 



AGRICULTURE 



Sweet corn differs from other kinds of corn in the large 
amount of sugar contained in the grain. As the yield is 
much less than that of field corn, sweet corn is never grown 
except for table use, or, occasionally, for early feed. 




Types of corn: A, Flint corn; B, Dent corn; C, Soft corn; D, Pod corn. 

Pod corn is peculiar in that each kernel is surrounded by 
a separate husk. Its yield is very small and it is of no 
economic importance. 

Varieties of Dent Corn. Many varieties of dent corn 
are grown in the United States. Different varieties are 
adapted to different localities. 

In northeast Kansas, for example, the rainfall is 
ample. In this region varieties such as Boone County 
White, Kansas Sunflower, Reid's Yellow Dent, and 
Commercial White, which produce large, vigorous stalks 



CORN 



45 



and large ears, and require a rather long season to mature, 
give the best yield. In central and western Kansas the 
rainfall is less, the elevation is greater, and the seasons are 
shorter. If seed of one of the large varieties is planted in 
central or western Kansas, such a growth of stalk and 
foliage is produced that little available moisture remains 
with which to produce grain. If, on the other hand, the 
seed of a smaller, earlier-maturing variety, such as Pride 
of Saline and adapted strains of Kansas Sunflower, Iowa 
Silvermine, and Hogue's Yellow Dent, is planted, a fair 
yield of grain will be produced. 




Map of Kansas, showing the corn region3\Qf the state. 



The varieties adapted to the different regions of the 
state, as shown in the accompanying map, are as follows: 

Region 1: Boone County White; Reid's Yellow Dent; 
Kansas Sunflower; Commercial White. 

Regions 2 and 3: Kansas Sunflower; Commercial 
White; Hildreth Yellow Dent on bottom land. 

Region 4: Kansas Sunflower; Pride of Saline; Hogue's 
Yellow Dent; Reid's Yellow Dent; Iowa Silvermine; Boone 
County White. 



46 AGRICULTURE 

Region 5: Pride of Saline; Kansas Sunflower; Iowa 
Silvermine. 

Region 6: Pride of Saline; Hogue's Yellow Dent; Iowa 
Silvermine; Reid's Yellow Dent; Kansas Sunflower. 

Region 7: Pride of Saline; Hogue's Yellow Dent; Kan- 
sas Sunflower; Iowa Silvermine. 

Region 8: Iowa Silvermine (early strain) ; Freed 's 
White Dent; Sherrod's White Dent; local strains. 

Home-grown Seed. Usually the best varieties are 
those which have been developed in the local community 
where they are to be grown. Corn adapts itself to soil, 
temperature, and rainfall, after being grown in a region 
for a long time. When a corn accustomed to growing 
with plenty of rain is taken to a climate where the rainfall 
is less, it will not yield nearly so well as a variety ac- 
customed to dry weather and hot winds. It takes at 
least three years, and sometimes much longer, for a variety 
to accustom itself to new conditions. 

The agricultural college conducted experiments in eight 
counties in four different years to learn the difference 
between the yield of corn from home-grown seed and from 
seed of the same variety from another region of the state, 
when the two were grown side by side. These experiments 
were carried out to see just how much was lost by sending 
to a distant part of the state for seed corn. 

In Jewell county the crop was nearly eight bushels an 
acre more from home-grown seed than from seed brought 
in from other regions of the state. In Harvey county the 
crop obtained from planting home-grown seed was six 
and one-half bushels an acre greater than that obtained 
from the use of introduced seed. In Linn county the 
difference in favor of the use of home-grown seed was 
about ten and three-quarters bushels an acre. In Butler 



CORN 



47 



county the average of three years' tests was about twelve 
and one-half bushels an acre in favor of home-grown seed. 
In Chase county the difference was eight bushels to the 
acre in favor of home-grown seed; in Greenwood county, 
seven bushels; in Cherokee county, nearly eight bushels; 
in Kingman county, about five and one-half bushels. 

The average of all tests showed a difference of more 
than nine bushels to the acre in favor of home-grown seed. 
Thus the yield was increased almost one-third by the use 
of home-grown seed, as compared with bringing seed in 
from another region. If the seed used in these tests had 
been brought from outside the state instead of from 
another part of Kansas, even a greater difference in favor 
of home-grown varieties would have been shown. 




Types of ears of corn. Numbers 1 and 2 are good ears ; 3 is too tapering ; 4, reverse tapering; 
5, too long; 6, too smill in circumference ; 7, too short, and large in circumference ; 8 and 9 have 
crooked rows and kernels of irregular shape. 

Selecting Seed Corn. The only safe way is to select 
seed on the farm on which it is to be grown, or in the same 
neighborhood. To avoid possible loss in a poor year. 



48 



AGRICULTURE 



enough should be selected for two years at least. As a 
dozen good-sized ears will plant an acre, enough seed for 
planting a large acreage can be selected in a short time. 
The most desirable ears should be selected in the field 
before frost. 

Points in Selecting Seed. The principal points to 
consider in selecting corn for seed are maturity, size of 
ears, and environment. The ears should be sound, and 
should show by their appearance that they are not too late 
in maturing for the locality. If the season has been a very 
poor one for corn, due allowance must be made. If, on 
the other hand, the season has been very favorable, only 
those ears which will pass the most severe test, in form and 
development, should be accepted. 

If the smallest ears are selected, there will be a tendency 
for the variety to become earlier and the yield less. Ears 
that are too large will be likely to produce immature corn 
the following year. Therefore, as large ears should be used 
as can be depended on to mature in the locality. 

If corn is not selected in the field, there is no way of 
knowing under what conditions a good ear was produced. 




\ wL'll-selected sample of corn. 



The excellence may be due to unusually rich soil in the 
spot in which the ear grew. Perhaps the stand was rather 
thin, giving this ear an advantage over the others. Such 



CORN 



49 



an ear, even though large and well developed, might not be 
better for seed than a much poorer ear grown where the 
soil was not fertile or where the stand was thick. It is 
important to select good ears which have grown on soil 
of the average quality, where the stand was uniform. 

Storing Seed Corn. The failure of seed corn to grow 
well is usually due either to the immaturity of the seed or 
to lack of care after the corn is gathered. Immature corn 
does not have the vitality and strength of mature corn. 




A good way to store seed corn. 

Even in mature corn, the germinative power may be 
greatly injured through lack of proper care. Seed corn 
may be damaged in two ways : by freezing when it is damp ; 
by remaining damp for a long time. Seed corn that is 
properly dried, and kept dry, will not be injured by the 
coldest weather. 



50 



AGRICULTURE 



One of the best ways to dry and store corn is to hang 
it up ill strings of from ten to twelve ears, in an attic or 
a machine shed. There should be sufficient circulation of 
air to dry the corn rapidly. After it is dry it may be 
stored in any dry place where it will not be injured by rats 
or mice. Seed corn should not be stored in a cellar, over 
grain in a granary, or in a barn where cattle or horses are 
kept. In all these places it will absorb moisture from the 
air, and by spring may be greatly injured. 

Testing Seed Corn. Even though corn is cared for in 
the best possible way, a germination test should be made 
in the spring. A preliminary test is made by taking one 
kernel from each of a hundred or more ears, placing the 
kernels about an inch deep in a box of wet sand or soil, 
and keeping the box in a warm place for about a week. 
Or, the kernels may be germinated between wet sheets 
of blotting 
paper. If 
ninety per 
cent or more 
of the kernels 
germinate, 
the corn may 
safely be used 
for seed. If, 
however, less 
than ninety 
per cent ger- 
minates, it is 
advisable t o 
test each ear, 

throwing away those ears which do not show a germina- 
tion of ninety per cent or better. 

The Ear Germination Test. The material required for 



,.^x\,r~tiXnf^}VJ^ 



|»<<wi«;^ 




A home-made seed-corn germinator. 



CORN 



51 



an ear test comprises a box about three feet long, two and 
a half feet wide, and six inches deep; a sack of sawdust or 
chaff; two pieces of muslin the size of the box; and one 
piece of muslin a little more than twice as large. One 
piece of muslin should be marked off in two and a half- 
inch squares, which should be numbered. The ears of com 
to be tested should be numbered to correspond with the 
squares. The sawdust or chaff should be soaked in water 
— warm water is to be preferred — until it is thoroughly 
wet. After it has drained, enough should be placed in the 
box to make it about half full when the sawdust or chaff 
is packed down. The ruled muslin is then moistened and 
placed on the packed sawdust or chaff. When this has 
been done, six kernels are taken from each ear and placed 

in the square having 
the same number as 
the ear. These ker- 
nels should be taken 
from different parts of 
the ear, as one side 
may be injured while 
the rest of the ear may 
be uninjured. A good 
plan is to take two 
kernels from opposite 
sides of the ear, at the 
tip, at the middle, and 
at the butt, giving the ear a quarter turn each time two 
kernels are removed. The kernels should be placed germ 
side up on the muslin. 

When all the squares are filled, the second piece of 
muslin should be moistened and laid over the corn care- 
fully, so as not to disturb the kernels. The larger piece of 
muslin may then be laid over the whole and the rest of the 




The results of a germinr'tion tc?t, showing kerneis taken 
from dead, weak, and vigorous ears. 



52 AGRICULTURE 

sawdust or chaff placed on it. This sawdust or chaff is 
leveled and packed down in the box, especially around 
the edges, to prevent drying. It need not be packed so 
solidly as that in the bottom of the box. 

The box should be left in a warm room for several days, 
but not too near a stove. From six to ten days — depend- 
ing on the temperature — after the corn is placed in the box 
the test is ready to be read. 

Reading the Test. In preparing to read the test, first 
remove the top layer of sawdust or chaff by rolling up the 
top piece of muslin containing it. The second piece of 
muslin should then be removed, care being taken that no 
kernels stick to it and are misplaced. 

In looking the corn over, some difficulty will be found 
in deciding which ears to save and which to throw away. 
A good plan is to have three lots. In the first, place those 
ears all six kernels from which germinated strongly. In 
the second, place those ears which had one dead or weak 
kernel out of the six. In the third, place those ears which 
were entirely dead or in which two or more kernels were 
dead or weak. The first lot may be put away for seed. 
The second lot may be saved for emergency. The third 
lot should not be used for seed in any event, but should 
be thrown into the feed bin. 

Decrease in Yield of Corn. The acre yield of corn in 
Kansas has decreased steadily for the last forty years. 
Com has been gi'own upon the same land continuously 
for so long that much of the Ecvailable plant food has been 
consumed. Corn is grown upon the same land year after 
year, and weeds, insects, and other pests accumulate in 
soil that is planted to one crop year after year. Moreover, 
the fertility and the water capacity of the soil are further 
decreased by the destruction of humus, or vegetable 
matter, through continuous cultivation of the ground. 



CORN 



53 



The remedy is to rotate corn with other crops. A rota- 
tion prevents multiplication of insects, checks the growth 
of weeds, and aids in keeping up the fertility of the soil. 

Crops to Precede Corn. The best crop to grow before 
corn is some legume. In eastern Kansas this may be 
clover, alfalfa, or cowpeas. In central Kansas alfalfa can 
be successfully grown, and except in the extreme northern 
part, cowpeas also. In dry seasons com burns out badly 
when grown after alfalfa. In regions of limited rainfall, 
a crop of kafir or some other sorghum should be grown 
between alfalfa and corn. In the eastern third of the 
state, when corn is to follow a wheat or oats crop, it is 
advisable to sow cowpeas as a catch crop as soon as the 
small grain is harvested. The cowpeas will make a good 
growth before frost, and may be either pastured or plowed 
under for green manure. In either case, the corn crop 
that is to follow will be greatly benefited. 

Methods of Planting Corn. There are two common 
methods of planting corn in Kansas — listing and surface- 




A lister. 



planting. By the first method, the com is planted in the 
bottoms of deep furrows made with a lister. When the 



54 



AGRICULTURE 



corn is to be listed the ground often is not cultivated until 
time to plant the seed. In surface-planting, the corn is 
planted in level ground with a corn planter, after the land 
has been plowed and worked. 

Listed corn stands drouth better, is more easily culti- 
vated, and is not so easily blown down as is corn planted 
with a corn planter. But where rains are plentiful, listed 
corn does not germinate so well and is more easily drowned 
out. 

The ground does not warm up so quickly in the bottom 
of deep furrows as on the surface of the ground. For that 
reason listed corn makes a slower growth than surface- 
planted corn, and does not produce so large a yield when 
the soil is fertile and there is plenty of moisture. Where 
moisture is likely to be deficient, listing gives better yields. 
It has been found that listing gives the best yields in 
central and western Kansas; surface-planting, in the 
eastern third of the state. 




A seed bcu in good tilth. 



Preparing Ground for Listed Corn. Although many 
farmers do nothing with their ground until they are ready 



CORN 55 

to plant, this is not the best course to pursue. When 
ground is not growing a crop it should be getting ready 
for the next one. It does not do this when it is left through- 
out autumn, winter, and early spring just as when the 
previous crop was taken off. 

One of the best ways to prepare ground is to list it in 
the fall, in the winter, or very early in the spring. This 
is done to absorb most of the rain that falls and to store it 
for use the following summer. When corn-planting time 
comes the corn may be planted in the old furrows; or, if 
weeds have begun to grow, the ridges may be broken out, 
or "split," and the corn planted in the new furrows. 

If for any reason it is not feasible to list the ground in 
the fall, winter, or early spring, it should be disked in the 
spring as soon as it is dry enough to work. This will 
prevent the evaporation of moisture already stored in 
the soil, and will put the ground into better condition to 
absorb the water from rains. 

The Time of Plowing for Corn. When corn is to be 
surface-planted, the best time to plow is in the fall. Ground 
plowed at this time is exposed all winter to the frost, which 
pulverizes it and puts it into excellent condition for a crop. 
Plowed ground catches more rainfall and helps prevent the 
rainfall from running away. When alfalfa or clover is 
plowed up, there is more time for the roots to decay if the 
breaking is done in the fall. If the ground is infested with 
cutworms, white grubs, corn-ear worms, wire root-worms, 
or other insects, fall plowing will kill many of them. 

If ground can not be plowed in the fall, it should be 
plowed in the winter or as early in the spring as possible. 
Ground plowed just before planting time is likely to be 
too loose for a good seed bed, and is never in so good 
condition as land plowed early. If the surface is baked, 



56 



AGRICULTURE 



or if weeds begin to grow, ground that can not be plowed 
early should be disked. 

The Depth of Plowing. Corn requires a deep seed bed. 
It therefore makes the best growth when the plowing is 
rather deep — from seven to eight inches. It usually does 
not pay to plow deeper than eight inches. If the plowing 
is done immediately before the corn is planted, it is better 
to plow only four to five inches deep. 

The Rate of Planting. Corn is more often planted too 
thick than too thin. While thick planting gives larger 
yields on good land and 
in good seasons, the op- 
posite is true on poor 
land or in dry seasons. 
The size of the corn 
grown also makes con- 
siderable difference. On 
the same kind of land 
a small early corn may 
be planted much thicker 
than a large late corn. 

In the eastern part 
of the state, if the corn is checkrowed, two good stalks 
to the hill are sufficient on all but the best bottom land 
and in the more fertile portions of northeastern Kansas, 
where three stalks are probably better. In central Kan- 
sas, where corn is usually listed, one good stalk every 
twenty-two to twenty-four inches is enough. In western 
Kansas the stalks should be from twenty-eight to thirty- 
two inches apart in the listed row. 

The Depth to Cover Corn. The depth to which corn 
should be covered varies with the time of planting, with 
the kind of soil, and with the moisture conditions. It 




A corn planter with disk furrow openers. 



CORN 57 

should be covered just so deep that it will not dry out 
before it germinates and becomes established in the soil. 
In the eastern part of the state the best depth is usually 
about one inch. This gradually increases as one goes 
west, until in western Kansas corn may be covered to a 
depth of two and a half or three inches. Corn which is 
planted early is not planted so deep as that planted late, 
since moisture is usually more plentiful, evaporation is 
less, and there is less danger of the corn's drying out. In 
western Kansas, for example, the earliest planting may be 
as shallow as one inch, while the corn planted late should 
be covered not less than three inches. 

The Cultivation of Corn. The purposes of cultivating 
corn are to kill weeds, to prevent excessive evaporation, 
and to aerate the soil. Controlling the weeds is by far the 
most important of these purposes ; for, if weeds are allowed 
to grow, they take moisture and plant food that should be 
saved for the corn. 

Frequency and Depth of Cultivation. If corn is culti- 
vated frequently enough to keep out the weeds, there is 
usually no need to worry about aeration of the soil and the 
conservation of moisture. The number of cultivations 
necessary to keep out weeds varies with season and local- 
ity, the usual number being from four to six. It is better 
to cultivate when the weeds are very small, as they are 
much more easily killed at that time. A cultivator with 
smaller shovels may also be used to advantage while the 
weeds are small. If surface-planted corn is planted in hills, 
so that it can be plowed both ways, the field can much 
more easily be kept clean. 

It has been found that shallow cultivation, two to three 
inches deep, gives the best results, provided it is sufficiently 
deep and frequent to kill the weeds. If weeds get ahead, 



58 AGRICULTURE 

because of rainy weather or for other reasons, it is better 
to cultivate rather deep to kill the weeds than to cultivate 
shallow and allow a part of them to escape. 

Deep cultivation, that is, deeper than four inches, is 
likely to cut off the roots and injure the corn more than it 
benefits. This is especially the case if the cultivator is run 
close to the row late in the season. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the types of corn that are of economic importance. 
In what parts of the United States are the three most important 
types grown? 

2. What are the conditions of the soil and climate and the char- 
acteristics of the plant which determine what variety of corn will 
yield best in a given locality? 

3. Why should one choose different varieties of corn for eastern 
and for western Kansas? Name desirable varieties for each part of 
the state. 

4. What are the objections to using seed corn brought from a 
considerable distance? 

5. How does the present acre yield of corn in Kansas compare 
with that of forty years ago? Why? How may the present yield 
be profitably increased? 

6. What crops should follow corn? What ones precede corn? 
Why? How would this vary in different parts of the state? 

7. Name all the advantages and disadvantages of listingc orn- 
of surface-planting corn. Where is listing to be preferred to plant; 
ing? 

8. When should ground be plowed for corn? How deep? Under 
what circumstances and how will the depth of plowing vary? Give 
reasons for each answer. 

9. How deep should corn be covered in planting? What condi- 
tions will cause the depth to vary? How will it vary? 

10. What are the objects to be accomplished by c ultivating corn? 
What are the conditions which will determine time, depth, and fre- 
quency of cultivation? 

11. How should seed corn be selected? Why? What character- 
istics of the stalk would you consider in selecting seed corn? What 
characteristics of the ear? 

12. How should seed corn be stored? What are the reasons for 
such care? 

13. When, why, and how should seed corn be tasted ? 



CHAPTER VII 

SORGHUMS 

The word "sorghum" is a general term that includes 
those plants known as broom corn, kafir, milo, Jerusalem 
corn, kaoliang, and others, as well as those ordinarily 
called cane. The sorghums are natives of equatorial 
Africa and of India and China, and by nativity and 
natural selection are adapted to a warm and dry climate. 




Map of Kansas, showing acreage of sorghums, average of five years, 1909-1913. One dot rep- 
resents two hundred acres. 

The Present Importance of Sorghums. The area 
devoted to sorghums in Kansas has increased tenfold in 
the last ten years, and is now about one-fourth the area 
normally sown to wheat and more than twice the area 
devoted to alfalfa. This increase is due principally to the 
fact that sorghums of the various classes are now exten- 

(59) 



60 



AGRICULTURE 



United States 



sively used for pasture, hay, silage, and grain crops as well 
as for the manufacture of sirup. 

Adaptability. Sorghums are adapted to practically all 
classes of soils found in this state, with the exception of 
those which are extremely alkaline and those which are 
very wet and poorly drained. They are grown throughout 
the tropical regions and over most of the temperate zones, 
and one or more varieties are used by almost every civilized 
people. 

The Introduction of Sorghums into the United States. 
Most of the sorghums now under cultivation in this 
country were introduced either by 
Department of Agriculture or by 
some state experiment station. 
The first of the sweet sorghums 
now grown in the United States 
was imported in 1853. In 1856 the 
United States government began 
to distribute free the seed of this 
sorghum. This variety, now called 
black cane, was known at that 
time as Chinese sugar cane. 

The kafirs first reached this 
country in 1875 or 1876, being 
imported to the southern states. 
They proved of small value there, 
but when they were brought to the 
drier regions of Kansas, Oklahoma, 
and Texas, several years later, their 
true worth was discovered. The 
exact date on which milo reached this country is uncer- 
tain, but the plant was probably imported by the United 
States Office of Sugar Plant Investigations in 1884 or 1885. 




Sorghum plants, showing root 
development. 



SORGHUMS 



61 



In obtaining the fifteen or twenty varieties tliat would 

be considered of most importance in the United States, 

considerably more than one thousand lots have been 

grown and tested experimentally. 
Description. The sorghums are 

grass-like in appearance, except that 

they are much coarser. The center 

stem is strongly developed, and all the 

common varieties are annuals ; that is, 

live but one year. Depending upon 

the variety, the number of leaves on 

each stalk varies from about seven 

to sixteen, and the height of the stalk 

from three to twelve or more feet. 

The seed head may be large, loose, and 

open, as in the case of the amber 

sorghums, or it may be very close and 

compact, as in the milos. The seeds 

are usually spherical; in some cases 

their length is greater than their width, 
and they are often flattened, especially 
toward the base, where they are attached 
to the seed head. In some varieties 
the seeds are hard and flinty, while 
in others they are comparatively soft. 
Usually the seeds of the sweet sor- 
ghums contain tannic acid, which 
gives them a bitter and puckering 
taste. Depending on the variety, 
the stalks are very juicy and sweet, 
juicy without sweetness, or dry and 
pithy. The time required for matur- 
A good headof Freed sor- jng varlcs wlth the scason, the locality. 




A tj-pical head of Red Amber 
sorghum. 




62 AGRICULTURE 

and the variety. Some will mature in sixty days, while 
others require one hundred and twenty days. 









J 








SliL 




■1 


1 


^^^6 


^ 



Kafir iu the shock. 

Habits of Growth. Sorghum seed requires a warm soil 
in which to germinate. Because of this fact, those varieties 
which have soft seeds require later planting than those 
with hard, flinty seeds. During the first three or four 
weeks after germination the sorghums make a very slow 
growth. During this period they are sending their roots 
deep into the soil and preparing for rapid growth later. 

The sorghums require less water to produce a pound of 
dry matter than most other common field crops, and this 
makes them especially valuable where rainfall is limited. 

The sorghums are considered drouth-resistant, however, 
largely because of their ability to stand for a considerable 
time during drouth without growth, and to recover and 
grow rapidly when conditions of moisture are again favor- 
able. 

They are able to withstand drouth because their leaves 
curl or roll tightly during severe drouth and practically 
stop the transpiration of water, or the passing of water 
from the leaves to the air. Corn possesses this power, but 
in much less degree. 

Saccharine Sorghums. The saccharine sorghums are 



SORGHUMS 



63 



distinguished mainly by an abundance of sweet juice in 
the stalks. This type of sorghum is used extensively for 
pasture, hay, silage, and the manufacture of sirup. A 
classification of sorghums may be found 
in the Appendix. 

Non-saccharine Sorghums. The 
non-saccharine sorghums, commonly 
called the grain sorghums, are charac- 
terized by absence of sweet juice from 
the stalks. They are used principally 
for the production of grain, although 
they make good silage and fair fod- 
der. Kafir is the most important 
member of this group. Its stallvs are 
comparatively free from suckers, and 
are thick, heavy and leafy. The heads 
are always borne on erect stems. Ths 
seeds are slightly elongated, and are 
hard and flinty. 

The durra group of sorghums, of 
which milo is the most important, is 
distinguished by a comparatively 
pithy stalk, and a smaller amount of fo- 
liage than kafir. The seeds resemble a 
sphere that has been somewhat flat- 
tened. In some varieties the seeds are 
rather soft; in others, hard and flinty. 
The heads are either erect or borne on 
gooseneck stems. 

Broom Corn. The broom corns are 
characterized by their long, loose, open 
seed heads, dry, pithy stalks, and com- ^ ''°°' '^''^ °f f*^''"''- 
paratively scant foliage. After the seed has been re- 
moved, the head is known as the brush, and is used in the 
manufacture of brooms. 




A good head of feterita. 




64 



AGRICULTURE 



Seed-bed Preparation. The preparation of the ground 
for sorghums is as important as for corn. In the eastern 
part of the state, where rainfall is heavy, sorghums should 
be surface-planted. In the western part of the state, 
where rainfall is less, listing is the more 
satisfactory method. In handling 
ground with the lister it is usually best 
to blank-list in the fall, allowing the 
ground to lie rough during the winter, 
in order that any snows which fall may 
be caught in the furrows, and in order 
that the soil may not blow. In the 
early spring the ridges may be worked 
down with a cultivator such as is used 
for listed corn, or, where there is little 
danger of blowing, the harrow may be 
used. Just before planting time the 
ridges may be split with the lister; or, ^^"^^^ yeiiowmiio. 
if it is more convenient, furrow openers may be attached 
to the ordinary corn planter, and the sorghum seed 
planted in the bottom of the furrows which were opened 
the previous fall. 

Planting. The amount of seed to be planted on each 
acre will depend upon the rainfall, the length of the season, 
the size of the variety to be planted, the quality of the 
seed, the fertility of the soil, and the purpose for which 
the crop is to be grown. In broadcast seeding in eastern 
Kansas, from one and one-half bushels to two and one-haif 
bushels usually gives the best results. In broadcast seed- 
ing in central Kansas about one and one-half bushels is 
most satisfactory, while in extreme western Kansas from 
three pecks to one bushel is best. 




SORGHUMS 



65 




Broom com. On the left, a head with seed removed; on the 
right, a head with seed. The cut shows a good type of head. 
Observe that there is no coarse center stem to cause the broom 
to wear unevenly. 



In planting i n 
cultivated rows 
for silage in east- 
em Kansas ten to 
twelve pounds of 
seed an acre has 
given excellent re- 
sults, while in the 
western part of 
the state from six 
to eight pounds 
an acre has proved 
better than heav- 
ier seeding. 

In w e s t e r n 
Kansas, when the 
crop is to be 
grown for seed 
production, four 
pounds to the 
acre of any of the 
common sorghums 
or kafirs is suffi- 
cient. If the seed 
is of low germinat- 
ing power and pos- 
sesses little vital- 
ity the amount 
used must be in- 
creased in direct 
proportion to the 
amount of seed 
which will not 



66 AGRICULTURE 

grow. It must be remembered that sorghums are natives 
of a warm, dry dimate and will not do their best in a cold 
soil. Those varieties which require a comparatively long 
time to mature must be planted earlier than those varie- 
ties which mature quickly. Ordinarily, plantings should 
be made from two to three weeks later than the plantings 
of corn in the same locality. 

Cultivation. In western Kansas better results are 
usually secured if, instead of the common ridging of the 
rows, small furrows are left in the row when all cultivation 
is completed. In the case of surface-planted sorghums, 
the rows are usually ridged slightly at the last cultivation. 

Harvesting. The time and the method of harvesting 
depend altogether upon the purpose for which the crop is 
grown. If the sorghum is grown for grain alone, the 
cheapest method is to harvest the heads from the stand- 
ing stalks in the field. Where a considerable acreage of 
sorghum is grown machine heading may be profitably 
followed. The ordinary grain header, after the platform 
is elevated, can be successfully used to harvest dwarf 
varieties, such as dwarf milo planted so thickly that the 
heads will stand erect, and dwarf kafir. There are a 
number of single-row headers which can be attached to 
ordinary wagons, but none of them thus far has proved 
entirely satisfactory. 

When it is desired to use the crop both for grain and 
for forage, most growers pr-efer to cut the crop when the 
seed is in the soft-dough stage. When it is cut at this 
period there is sufficient nourishment in the stalk to allow 
the seed to cure fairly well so that it is good feed, yet no 
leaves are lost, and the stalk has not yet become dry and 
pithy. 

In cutting broadcast plantings for hay it is usually best. 



SORGHUMS 67 

in case there has been sufficient moisture to allow the crop 
to head, to wait until the seed is in the soft-dough stage. 

When sorghums are cut in hot weather the juice is apt 
to ferment and reduce the feeding value. It is best to 
plant the sorghums at such a time that they will mature 
after hot weather is past, as they can then be more con- 
veniently harvested and can be cured into better feed. 

Sorghums should be cut for silage when the seed is just 
firm enough to be readily cut when pressed between the 
thumb nail and the finger. When harvested in this stage 
the sorghum makes a large yield of rich silage. 

Storing. The proper storing of sorghums, as of any 
other feed, is important to every farmer. Sorghums will 
keep comparatively well if put into large shocks. If broad- 
cast sorghum has been cut for hay, a shock of half a ton 
will keep for a considerable time in a dry region without 
much loss, though some feed is damaged by dirt blowing 
into the shocks, by mice working in the bottom of the 
shocks, and by exposure to the weather. It is desirable 
to stack the feed as soon as it is sufficiently cured. For 
general stock feeding, particularly of cattle and sheep, the 
most satisfactory method of storage is by means of the 
silo. The advantages of storing in the silo are that the 
feed is convenient to use ; there is no loss by dust and dirt 
blowing into the stack; there is no rotting on the ground; 
rats, mice, and insects do no damage; and the feed is 
fireproof. 

Threshing. In threshing sorghums great care is re- 
quired to avoid breaking the seed. This is especially im- 
portant in handling milo and feterita. For threshing 
these types at least one-half of the cylinder teeth should 
be removed from the thresher ; in some cases a blank con- 
cave plate is used. It is also necessary to run the thresher 



68 AGRICULTURE 

more slowly than for threshing wheat. Fewer seeds are 
broken if the sorghums are headed with stems from a foot 
and a half to two feet long, as this provides sufficient stems 
to prevent the cylinder teeth from beating against the 
grains so severely. 

The Improvement of Sorghums. The one right place 
and the one right time to make selections of sorghum seed 
are in one's own field and before the first frost. 

Sorghums cross-fertilize readily, and therefore seed 
selections should be made at least one hundred yards from 
any other variety. In selecting sorghum seed for forage, 
choose erect, leafy plants. Do not select those which 
have an excessive tendency to stool, nor those which 
produce side branches or suckers from the upper joints or 
nodes. Consider only those plants which ripen uniformly, 
and only those on which the main stalk and the suckers 
are of practically the same height and type. Find, if 
possible, an early-maturing plant, as this in many cases 
means drouth evasion, and may mean a crop when later- 
maturing plants would fail entirely. 

In selecting seed for grain all points considered in 
selection for forage should be given attention, and, in 
addition, the heads should grow well out of the boot and 
the seed should not shatter. The heads should be of a 
fairly compact form and well-filled from butt to tip. 
Usually those heads which have short internodes, that is, 
short spaces between the joints, yield the most grain. 

The selected heads should be either threaded on a 
string and hung from the rafters of the barn or granary 
where birds can not reach them, or piled loosely in sacks 
and hung where there is free circulation of air. They 
should not be threshed until near planting time. Sorghum 
seed that has been threshed heats readily when stored in 
bulk, and such seed is likely to be of poor germination. 



SORGHUMS 



69 



Pasturing Sorghums. There is danger in pasturing 
sorghums, especially when there has been a period of 
drouth or when the sorghum growth has been stunted in 
any other manner. At such times kafir, milo, and all the 
sweet sorghums have been known to contain prussic acid, 
a quick-acting and deadly poison. There is no entirely 
satisfactory treatment for stock poisoned by prussic acid, 
though if the illness is discovered in time large quantities 
of glucose or cheap sirup may effect a cure. 

Sorghum Regions Defined. As indicated in the ac- 
companying map, there are five sorghum regions in Kan- 
sas, different varieties of sorghums being required for these 
several parts of the state. In region 1, where the altitude is 
great and the season short, dwarf milo, feterita, and Freed 




Map of Kansas, showing the sorghum regions. 

sorghum are grown successfully for the production of 
grain. Dwarf black-hulled kafir and white-hulled kafir 
mature grain in the more favorable seasons. Home-grown 
or northern-grown seed should be planted if possible. The 
Freed sorghum will mature in about eighty-five days. It 
does not make a heavy yield, but the fodder is of good 



70 AGRICULTURE 

quality. Early-maturing strains of black and red amber 
sorghum will also mature seed in this region. These 
varieties and kafir are all suitable for forage production. 

In region 2, dwarf black-hulled kafir, white-hulled 
kafir, milo, and feterita will mature seed in average seasons. 
Standard black-hulled kafir seldom makes a profitable 
seed crop. All varieties of kafir are excellent for forage. 
Freed sorghum, amber sorghums, and early-maturing 
varieties of orange sorghum do well in this area. 

Dwarf milo, feterita, and Freed sorghum are well 
adapted to region 3. The kafirs are also dependable 
crops. Southern-grown seed will produce satisfactory 
crops in this region. 

In southern Kansas, east of region 3, the variety known 
as sumac sorghum, also called redhead and redtop, is an 
excellent variety for forage purposes, but will not ripen 
seed every year. The Kansas orange will ripen in one 
hundred and fifteen days under average conditions, while 
the sumac will require from one to two weeks longer. 

Throughout all of region 4, standard black-hulled kafir 
is the most profitable grain sorghum crop. In the north- 
ern two-thirds of region 4, Kansas orange sorghum is the 
most profitable forage variety. 

In region 5 kafir makes a very good grain yield, but is 
not so profitable as corn. Dwarf milo is not satisfactory in 
this region, because the forage yield is small and because 
chinch bugs are especially attracted to it. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why must sorghums be planted later than most field crops? 
Why would you select for sorghum planting a field free from weeds? 

2. What are the various reasons why sorghums withstand dry 
weather so well? 

3. How should the ground be prepared for sorghums? 



SORGHUMS 71 

4. Give several reasons why sorghums are crops well adapted to 
Kansas farms. The reasons should pertain to soil, climate, and the 
value of the crop for feeding. 

5. Give all the different conditions which determine when sor- 
ghums should be planted and how much to plant to the acre. 

6. How should sorghums be planted in eastern Kansas? In 
western Kansas? What are the reasons for these differences? How 
much seed should be planted on an acre in each part of the state? 

7. How should one harvest and care for a crop of sorghum grown 
for hay? for grain? for both grain and fodder? 

8. What are the advantages of storing the sorghum crop in the 
silo? When should the crop be cut for silage? 

9. How would you attempt to improve a strain of sorghum which 
you were growing on your farm? What are the characters you would 
consider in selecting seed to improve the stand? How should the 
seed be stored? Why? 

10. Make a list of the kinds of sorghum you would plant for hay; 
for grain; for sirup. Give your reasons for your choice in each case. 
(See also the table in the Appendix.) 

11. How does broom corn differ from other sorghums? Why is 
Freed sorghum adapted to northwestern Kansas? 



CHAPTER VIII 

WHEAT 

Wheat was cultivated for food in Eg5T)t before the 
pyramids were built, and in China at least 2700 years 
before the birth of Christ. The wheat plant in those early 
times was much as it is to-day, but the methods of 
growing, harvesting, and preparing it for food were very 
different. 

Wheat is supposed to have been developed from a wild 
plant in much the same way that our present breeds of cat- 
tle were developed from the wild cattle of Europe. The 
wheat plant grows wild in Palestine. The grains are 
longer and more boat-shaped than those of domestic 
wheat. In the wild plant the chaff adheres to the grain 
when threshed. It is supposed that before wheat was 
cultivated the wild wheat was gathered for food. Natural- 
ly the largest, best-appearing heads of wheat, and those 
containing the most and the best grain, would be selected 
first. Some of these perhaps became scattered, and grew 
about the dwellings. The best were again selected. After 
this had continued for many centuries and in different 
parts of the world, varieties very much like the ones we 
grow at present were developed. 

The ground in early times was plowed with a crooked 
stick drawn by women or oxen. By this means the 
ground was merely loosened on the surface. The grain was 
sown by hand. The farmers covered it by dragging the 
top of a tree over it, or by driving herds of cattle over the 

(72) 



WHEAT 



73 




A grain sickle. One of the 
early implements used 
in harvesting wheat. 



field. Of course, when grown by these methods the yield 
was very small. At first men harvested the grain by pull- 
ing up the entire plant or by breaking 
off the heads. A sort of stone sickle 
was sometimes used, which would half 
cut and half break the straw. When 
man began to use iron, sickles were 
made of this material. 

A great advance was made bj/ the 
invention of the cradle. The cradle 
came into general use during the time 
of the Roman Empire, and remained 
the principal means of harvesting 
wheat for many hundreds of years. 
More progress has been made in methods of harvesting 
wheat in the last seventy-five years than during all the 
centuries before. The beginning of advancement was the 
invention of the reaper in 1835 by 
Cyrus Hall McCormick, a Virginia 
farmer and blacksmith. The most 
epoch making improvement upon 
McCormick's reaper was John P. 
Appleby's invention of the ma- 
chine to tie the bundles. Out of 
this the modern self-binder grew. 
The Tillering of Wheat. The 
stem, when it first appears above- 
ground, broadens out into a leaf, 
a second leaf appears, surrounded 




An old-style grain cradle. 



After a few days 
by the first; and 
in a few more days a third, surrounded by the second. 
In case of winter wheat these leaves become separated 
from each other and flatten out on the ground. This 



74 



AGRICULTURE 



process occurs from two to four weeks after the grain is up. 
It is known as stooling, or tillering. From each of the 
first tillers others are formed in the same way, until there 
may be as many as fifty or one hundred tillers from each 
seed. Tillering takes place more abundantly when the soil 
is rich and where the wheat has been planted thinly. 

About a month after wheat begins to grow in the spring 
each of the tillers begins to shoot; that is, it sends up a 
shoot, inclosing a head. 

Types of Wheat. Wheat may be classed as winter or 
spring, according as it is adapted for seeding in the fall or 




Map of Kansas, showing the production of wheat, averape of five years, 1909-1913i 
dot lepresents ten thousand bushels. 



One 



in the spring. If spring wheat is sown in the fall, it will 
be killed before spring by cold, except in very mild winters. 
If, on the other hand, winter wheat is sown in the spring it 
will not produce heads. It is necessary that winter wheat 
pass through a dormant, or resting, stage, brought on by 
cold weather, before it will joint and produce heads. 

About seventy per cent of the wheat of the United 
States, and practically all that of Kansas, is winter wheat. 
It yields more than spring wheat, and as it ripens earlier it 



WHEAT 



75 



often escapes drouth, hot winds, rust, grasshoppers, and 
other things that damage spring wheat. Spring wheat is 
grown principally in Minnesota and the Dakotas, where 
the severe winters kill winter wheat. 

The principal kinds of spring wheat grown in the 




1. Polish wheat. 

2. Durum wheat. 

3. Hard spring wheat. 

4. Hard winter wheat. 



Heads of different Idnds of wheat. 



5. Soft winter wheat. 

6. Alaska wheat. 

7. Club wheat. 



United States are the Fife wheats, the Bluestem wheats, 
and the Durum wheats. Each of these is subdivided into 
varieties. 

Winter wheats are usually divided into two classes, the 
hard winter wheats, such as Turkey and Kharkof, and the 
soft winter wheats, such as Fultz, Harvest Queen, Zim- 



76 AGRICULTURE 

merman, and Fulcaster. By far the largest quantity of 
wheat grown in Kansas is of the hard winter type. 

Varieties of Wheat. Some kinds of wheat have beards, 
some have smooth chaff, while the chaff of many varieties 
is covered with fine velvety hairs. There is much variation 
in the height of the straw, in the color of the chaff, and in 
the color, the size, the shape, the hardness, and the 
quality of the grain. Experience has proved that the 
best varieties for most of Kansas are the Turkey and the 
Kharkof, which are nearly the same. The Turkey and 
Kharkof varieties are bearded, have smooth chaff but 
very hard grain, and make excellent flour. 

In the eastern part of Kansas, the Fultz, the Zimmer- 
man, and the Harvest Queen, all of which are beardless 
and have rather soft, large grains, usually give the largest 
yields. 

Before the introduction of the Turkey and Kharkof 
varieties from Russia, about thirty-five years ago, these 
large, soft-grained wheats were the only ones grown. 
They were not well adapted to the Kansas climate and 
consequently gave small yields and sometimes failed 
entirely. As the Turkey and Kharkof wheats had prob- 
ably been grown in Russia for centuries and had become 
adapted to conditions like those of Kansas, they imme- 
diately proved successful. 

The introduction of Russian wheat into Kansas in- 
creased the yield of wheat not only in Kansas, but in the 
United States as well, since it made it possible to grow 
winter wheat much farther north in the United States 
than would otherwise be possible. 

Preparation of the Ground. In many ways the preara- 
tion of the ground is the most important part of growing 
wheat. The soil is a sort of reservoir, which should be 



WHEAT 



77 



stored with moisture and plant food, and then covered 
with a layer of loose earth to retard loss of moisture until 
the plant can use it. Plowing and cultivating the ground 
put it into condition to absorb rains and unlock plant 
food, and also provide the layer of loose earth that pre- 
vents, so far as possible, loss of these materials. 

When wheat is grown on corn ground very little prep- 



1 


J 




V 






Bm 


»»"*'**^K 




--^S^ 




■| 




.1- 


Wl 


1 


^^Hj^E j^^^^^l 




IHb >;''^ 


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9 


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Hfcini at pl^nmic ^H 


"^^t-n in diA-p I^HI 




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XMl July IS ^H 




u .„, -^t » ]^H 


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' ~1!»hH 




'^mmm 




";:,:, tM 


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AS.. ^t-v":_»-"' . 


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^^I^^S 



A contrast. Wheat grown upon one-tenth of an acre of land, showin'j the effect of five meth- 
ods of preparing the ground where wheat has been continuously grown. The method of preparation 
has been the same in each case for the previous three years. 

aration is necessary. In fact, the cultivation given the 
corn prepares the ground for wheat, so that about all that 
is necessary is to disk the ground well before the grain is 
sown. 

When wheat follows a small-grain crop, like wheat or 
oats, it is essential to plow or list the ground. 

Early Plowing. The most important matter in plowing 
ground for wheat is to plow early, just as soon after harvest 



78 



AGRICULTURE 




A fanning mill. 



as possible. This puts the surface into condition to absorb 
rain, Uberates plant food, and gives the ground time to 
settle before the grain is sown. The value of early plowing 
is shown by the results of an 
experiment conducted at the 
agricultural college at Man- 
hattan, in which the yield 
from the ground plowed July 
15 was twenty-seven bushels 
an acre; the yield from the 
ground plowed August 15 was 
twenty and a half bushels an 
acre; and the yield from the 
ground plowed September 15 
was fifteen bushels an acre. 
In this case the gain from 
early plowing was twelve bushels, worth, at 80 cents a 
bushel, $9.60. 

"When ground can not be plowed immediately after 
harvest, it should be disked. Disking prevents, to a large 
extent, loss of moisture from the soil until the ground can 
be plowed. In another experiment conducted at Man- 
hattan, disking immediately after binding increased the 
acre yield of wheat eleven bushels, worth $8.80. 

Depth of Plowing. Plowing should be deep enough to 
turn all trash and straw under. It is seldom advisable to 
plow more than seven or eight inches deep, but there is 
more danger of plowing too shallow than too deep. Ground 
should not be plowed to the same depth every year. If 
this is done, a kind of hardpan forms at the bottom of the 
furrow, which to some extent prevents the penetration of 
rain and of the wheat roots into the unplowed part of the 
soil. The formation of this hardpan is prevented by rota- 



WHEAT 79 

tion of crops and plowing to a different depth for each 
crop. If a field grows first corn, then oats, then wheat, 
then corn again, it may be plowed eight inches deep for 
corn, disked for oats, and plowed five inches deep for 
wheat. 

Working the Ground after Plowing. If ground remains 
rough, as left by the plow, it will lose by evaporation 
practically all the moisture it contains. For that reason. 





A field of Turkey wheat which j-ielded 58.6 bushels an acre. Early plowing and good preparation 
of the soil were mainly responsible for the yield. 

ground that is plowed when in good condition should be 
harrowed or disked soon after being plowed. Ground that 
is too dry to plow may be disked and then left until a 
soaking rain, when it should be plowed. Ground that is 
dry when plowed may remain without further attention 
until rain falls. It should then be worked, in order to pre- 
vent the loss of moisture added by the rains. 

Listing the Ground for Wheat. In central and western 
Kansas the ground is often broken with a lister soon after 
harvest. The ridges are then gradually worked down, so 
that by seeding time the ground is level again. This 
method of preparation is more rapid and cheaper than 
plowing, and for many conditions is just as good. It has 
this disadvantage, however, that when land is prepared 



80 



AGRICULTURE 



in this manner year after year, there is a tendency for the 
lister to run in the same furrows, so that a part of the 
ground is never stirred. To avoid this condition the land 
may occasionally be plowed or listed at right angles to the 
old furrows. 

The Kind of Seed to Sow. Wheat that comes from the 
threshing machine usually contains weed seed, dirt, chaff, 




A good seed bed for wheat. 



bits of broken straw, and small, shriveled kernels. Such 
wheat is unfit for seed. A weed requires as much moisture 
and plant food as a wheat plant, and every weed reduces 
the yield of wheat just so much. Chaff and straw may 



WHEAT 81 

clog the drill. The small and shriveled kernels will not 
produce so strong plants as will the good, plump kernels. 
The vigor and strength of the wheat plant in its early 
life depend very much upon the amount of food material 
stored in the seed. 

All foreign matter and small, shrunken kernels should 
be removed. This can best be done by means of the fan- 
ning mill. If the wheat contains smut, the grain should be 
treated to prevent this disease in the following crop. 

The Methods of Seeding. Wheat may be sown broad- 
cast or with a drill. In the former case it is scattered 
uniformly over the ground and covered by disking or 
cultivating. The drill puts the seed directly into the 
ground. While broadcasting is slightly faster and cheaper 
than drilling, the latter is the better method. When wheat 
is drilled less seed is required than when it is sown broad- 
cast; the drill places it in direct contact with moist soil, 
which insures prompter and more nearly complete germi- 
nation. The plant makes a more rapid, vigorous growth 
if drilled, and is not so likely to winterkill. 

The Time of Seeding. Winter wheat must be sown 
early enough to enable it to get a good start and to develop 
strong roots before winter, else it may winterkill. On the 
other hand, it should not make too much growth before 
winter, or it will use moisture that should be saved for 
spring or summer growth. In eastern and central Kansas, 
where the Hessian fly sometimes injures wheat, seeding 
should be done just late enough to avoid the fly. 

In western Kansas it is usually necessary to seed wheat 
when there is sufficient moisture to germinate the seed 
promptly. It is usually not good practice to sow wheat in 
dry soil. There may be just enough moisture present to 
enable molds and bacteria to grow, and these will cause the 



82 



AGRICULTURE 



grain to rot ; or a light rain may sprout the grain but not 
furnish enough moisture to keep it growing. The best 
method is to have the ground, the seed, and the drill in 
readiness. Then, when a good rain comes the grain should 
be put in as quickly as possible thereafter. 

If rains occur as early as September 15, the grain should 
be sown at that time. If not, seeding may be delayed 
almost until winter, in preference to seeding in dry soil. 

The Rate of Seeding. The amount of wheat which 
should be sown to an acre depends upon several factors. 




A field of Turkey wheat in the shock. 

In case of an abundance of moisture and plant food, the 
yield of grain will be much greater when there are a large 
number of plants to the acre. In a dry year or on a poor 
soil, however, there may not be sufficient water or plant 
food to bring so many plants to maturity. For this 
reason the rate of seeding should be different in different 
parts of the state and on different soils. In eastern Kansas, 
where there is abundance of moisture, one and one-quarter 
or one and one-half bushels of grain is usually sown to the 



WHEAT 83 

acre; in central Kansas, one bushel an acre is enough, while 
in western Kansas, three pecks, or even two pecks, of good 
seed is ample. The quantity of seed that should be sown 
depends also upon its quality, upon the preparation of the 
ground, and upon the method of seeding. 

The Depth of Seeding. Wheat should be sown just so 
ieep that it will be in moist soil, and that it will not dry 
Dut before it germinates and sends its roots into the sub- 
soil. If the seed is sown deeper than this the plant will 
be slow in coming up, and in the event of unfavorable 
3onditions may die before reaching the surface. 

The depth necessary for the best results varies with soil 
and climate. On a light soil the grain may be sown deeper 
:han on a heavj^ soil and in a dry climate the grain should 
isually be sowi deeper than where rain is plentiful. In 
eastern Kansas tht best depth is from one to one and one- 
lalf inches. In western Kansas wheat is usually sown from 
Dne and one-half to three inches deep. 

Harvesting Wheat. Wheat continues to gain in weight 
intil it is ripe, though the increase is very slight during the 
ast few days of growth. The best time to harvest is when 
:he grain is in the hard-dough stage. 

Pasturing Wheat. When wheat makes a good growth 
n the fall it forms excellent pasture for horses, cattle, and 
sheep. If judiciously carried on, pasturing will not 
materially injure the wheat. Stock should never be turned 
apon wheat fields when the soil is wet, else much of the 
A^heat may be tramped out and the physical condition of 
the soil be greatly injured. 

Late spring pasturing is very detrimental, and is sure to 
:'educe the yield of wheat much more than will be com- 
pensated for by the value of the pasture. 



84 AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. How long has wheat been grown for food? How have the 
methods of harvesting changed? 

2. Does the depth of seeding have any relation to the depth to 
which the roots extend? What relation does soil fertility have 
to tillering? 

3. Name two of the best varieties of wheat for Kansas. Are these 
varieties best for all parts of the United States? Why? 

4. What is meant by winter wheat? spring wheat? What are 
the advantages of winter wheat where it can be successfully grown? 

5. Why is preparation of the ground for wheat important? What 
is a good method of preparing the ground for wheat? Why is this a 
good method? 

6. How deep should ground be plowed for wheat? Why is disk- 
ing after harvest usually a good practice? Where is listing a feasible 
method of preparing ground for wheat? 

7. In what way do time of plowing and rotation of crops affect 
depth of plowing? 

8. Why is drilling a better method of seeding than broadcasting? 
How should seed be prepared for seeding? What conditions deter- 
mine the depth of seeding? 

9. When should winter wheat be sown in Kansas? Why should 
it not be sown too early? too late? 

10. How much wheat an acre should be sown in eastern Kansas? 
in western Kansas? Why this difference? 



CHAPTER IX 



OATS AND OTHER SMALL GRAINS 

From thirty-five to fifty million bushels of oats are 
grown each year in Kansas. These oats are worth from 
$12,000,000 to $15,000,000, or about one-fifth the value of 
the corn crop, and about one-fourth the value of the wheat 
crop. The average yield of oats is approximately twenty- 
five bushels to the acre. This is but slightly more than the 
average yield of com for the entire state. Oats are there- 
fore relatively an unprofitable crop except for their value 
in crop rotation. 

Oats are grown for two reasons: first, because they are 
desired for feed for horses; second, because in many parts 
of the state there is not time enough 
after com is taken off to prepare a good 
seed bed for wheat. Since oats are a 
spring crop, they may be sown after 
corn, and may be followed by wheat. In 
this way a larger profit from the land 
may be obtained in the three years re- 
quired for the rotation than would be 
obtained if wheat were sown after the 
corn, and followed by corn again. 

Northern Oats. Many farmers send 
to Canada or the northern states for 
seed oats, because of the better quality 
of grain that can be obtained there. 
Montana- or Canadian-grown oats often weigh fifty 
pounds to the bushel, while Kansas-grown seed weighs 

(85) 




An oat flower. 



86 



AGRICULTURE 



thirty or thirty-two pounds to the bushel. Northern- 
grown oats, however, require much longer to mature than 
do the varieties best suited to Kansas; consequently, the 
northern varieties are forced to mature here during the 
hottest, driest part of the year, while the earlier varieties 
will be ripe before the hot weather arrives. As oats are 
especially susceptible to hot weather, it often happens 
that northern-grown oats will be practically a failure, 
while adapted varieties will make fair yields. 

Types of Oats, There are both winter and spring types 
of oats. Where they do not winterkill, winter oats produce 
much better yields. 
Unfortunately, 
winter oats have 
not been found 
hardy except in 
the southernmost 
part of the state, 
and there only in 
mild winters. 

Experiments 
conducted by the 
agricultural college 
in different parts 

of the state show that Red Texas and Kherson are 
best for eastern and central Kansas. Farther west, the 
Burt oats, which are somewhat earlier, appear to give 
the best results. 

The Preparation of the Ground. When grown in Kan- 
sas, oats usually follow corn. The ground may be plowed 
in the fall or in the spring, or it may simply be well disked 
before seeding. Probably the best method, where the 
ground is clean, is to sow the oats on disked corn land. 
In eastern Kansas there are some advantages in fall plow- 




Varieties of oats: A, Red Texas; B, Kherson; C, Burt. 



OATS AND OTHER SMALL GRAINS 87 

ing. Seeding may be done earlier on fall-plowed ground 
than on unplowed stubble ground. 

Time, Rate, and Method of Seeding. In general, the 
earlier oats can be sown in the spring the better. They will 
stand considerable cold weather without injury. 

The rate of seeding depends on the rainfall and the soil. 
On very rich soil in eastern Kansas three bushels may be 
sown to the acre. In central Kansas two to two and a half 
bushels an acre is sufficient, while farther west it is never 
advisable to seed more than two bushels to the acre, and 
less is often better. 

Though oats are often sown broadcast, a better way is 
to seed them with a drill. Less seed is required, and 
germination is quicker and more nearly uniform and 
complete. 

The Kind of Seed to Sow. Many farmers believe that 
oats run out; that is, that the quality of the seed gradually 
becomes poorer and poorer. This is believed to make a 
frequent change of seed necessary. If oats are cleaned and 
graded and care is taken to retain only the heaviest, 
plumpest kernels, the oats will not run out, but will become 
better each year. The climate of Kansas will not produce 
so heavy and plump an oat as will the climate of Montana 
or of Canada. The fact that seed oats weighing forty- 
eight to fifty pounds a bushel produce oats weighing only 
twenty-five to thirty pounds is no indication that the 
variety is running out. 

Barley. Barley is a good feed for hogs, and it would 
probably be a good substitute for oats in many localities 
where the tendency is to grow more oats than can be used 
on the farm. Barley requires less water than oats, and 
usually produces larger yields. The principal objection to 
the crop is that it is especially susceptible to damage by 



88 



AGRICULTURE 




Typeg of barley: ^.Two-row bar- 
ley; B, Hull-less barley: C, Six-row 
barley. 



chinch bugs. Where these insects are likely to infest the 
fields severely, barley should not be grown. 

There are both winter and spring types of barley. 
Spring barley is most extensively grown in Kansas, but 
winter barley gives the best yields 
in places where it is hardy. Win- 
ter barley can be grown success- 
fully as far north as Manhattan, 
about four years out of five. 

There are several kinds of spring 
barley. The most important are 
six-row, or common, barley; two- 
row barley; beardless barley; and 
hull-less barley. The six-row bar- 
ley is most commonly grown in the 
state, and usually gives the best 
results. 

The beardless and hull-less kinds are more convenient 
to handle, but they usually yield much less than do the 
common six-row sorts. 

Barley, like oats, should be sown as early in the spring 
as the ground can be prepared. Usually about two 
bushels of seed are sown to the acre. Winter barley is 
sown at about the same time as winter wheat, and at the 
rate of from one and one-half to two bushels an acre. 

Emmer. Emmer, or speltz, as it is commonly called, 
is grown to some extent in Kansas. It is a kind of wheat, 
but differs from v/heat mainly in that the chaff remains 
attached to the grain after threshing, as it did to wheat 
originally. The grain is very hard, is of a red color, and 
is long, slender, and somewhat boat-shaped. Emmer is 
not so convenient to handle as are oats, for the heads are 
bearded and the straw is very slippery, which makes it 
difficult to bind and stack. Emmer is used for horse and 



OATS AND OTHER SMALL GRAINS 89 

hog feed as a substitute for oats and barley. The straw is 
of practically no value for feed, being worth even less than 
wheat straw for this purpose. 

Emmer is sown in the spring, about the time that oats 
and barley are sown. Two and one-half bushels of seed 
is sown to the acre. 

Flax. Flax is sometimes grown on new land in Kansas, 
because it may be sown later than most other small grains 
and make a crop. The yield is usually small, so that the 
crop ordinarily proves unprofitable except when prices are 
high. Flax must be sown on ground that is free from 
weeds, as it makes a very open growth, which allows weeds 
to grow and finally choke out the crop. If flax is grown on 
the same ground year after year the soil is said to become 
"flax-sick." This condition is due to a fungous disease 
which attacks the growing plant and causes it to rot off at 
the surface of the ground. This disease is carried in the 
seed; consequently clean seed, free from the disease, is 
essential. The disease may remain in the soil for several 
years. If the soil becomes affected, flax should not be 
sown on it again for at least five years. 

Flax is sown about corn-planting time or a little later, at 
the rate of about one-half to three-fourths of a bushel to 
the acre. It is sometimes harvested with a binder, but is 
not bound, as the branching heads serve to hold the 
bundles together. It is sometimes left on the ground until 
it is threshed, although this is not a good practice, as flax is 
likely to be greatly injured by wet weather. A better way 
is to bind it loosely with twine and shock and stack it, as is 
done with wheat or oats. The stacks must be covered with 
straw or hay, as flax straw will not readily shed water. 

The seed of flax is used for making linseed oil, and the 
cake, after the oil has been pressed out, is a valuable stock 
feed and is known as oil cake or linseed meal. 



90 AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do oats compare with wheat and corn in value? yield to 
the acre? value to the acre? 

2. Why is the yield of oats to the acre so low in Kansas? Why 
are oats grown in Kansas? 

3. Where should the farmer secure his oats for seed? Why? Is 
a frequent change of seed oats necessary? 

4. What are winter oats? Why are they not more generally 
grown? 

5. What are the advantages of fall plowing for oats? 

6. Upon what does rate of seeding depend? 

7. How does the yield of barley compare with that of oats? Why 
is barley not more generally grown? 

8. Name three kinds of barley. How far north may winter 
barley be grown? 

9. How does emmer differ from wheat? 

10. Why is it more important to seed flax on ground free from 
weeds than to take this precaution for other grain crops? 

11. What is meant by " flax-sick " soil ? 



CHAPTER X 

HARVESTING, MARKETING AND MILLING WHEAT 

Where wheat is sent to market its value is judged largely 
by the appearance, the quality, and the weight of a 
measured bushel. There is seldom any doubt about the 
fitness for milling purposes of wheat that has been har- 
vested at the right time and properly handled, but only 
the expert miller is able to tell the value of damaged wheat, 
and the buyer, desiring above all things to protect himself, 
usually pays less for damaged wheat than it is really 
worth. 

Methods of Harvesting Wheat. In the eastern third of 
Kansas the wheat is cut with a self-binder, and most of it 
is stacked. In the central third of the state both the self- 
binder and the header are used. Much of the wheat cut 
with the binder there is not stacked, but stands in the 
shock until it is threshed. While remaining in the shock 
it is not well protected from rain and dew, and con- 
sequently is likely to become damaged by sprouting or 
molding. 

In parts of the central third of the state, and throughout 
the western third, the header is used almost exclusively. 
The wheat is allowed to become overripe, then is cut and 
stacked at once. The stacks of loose grain do not turn 
water readily, and must be properly built or much of the 
wheat in them will be damaged. 

The Effect of Methods of Harvesting on Quality. By 
far the largest acreage of Kansas wheat is produced in the 

(91) 



92 AGRICULTURE 

central third of the state, where the practice of threshing 
from the shock prevails. A very large proportion of the 
wheat stands in the shock from three to six weeks, or even 
longer, and in this period there often takes place a heavy 
rainfall, which frequently injures for flour-making purposes 
what would have been a good quality of grain. Some- 
times this result is unavoidable, but more often it is due 
to carelessness. If wheat is to remain in the field for any 
length of time it should be well shocked and capped. Even 
in well-made shocks which are allowed to stand for some 
time, the wheat on the exposed parts of the bundles may 
be seriously injured. Exposure in the shock to alternating 
rain and hot sun causes the kernels to swell and the 
branny coat to loosen, destroying the natural color, or 
"bloom." This gives the wheat what is termed a bleached 
appearance. In threshing, this poor wheat is mixed with 
good, and the grade and the market value of the whole 
are lowered. 

In the large markets wheat is sold according to grades. 
The grade given a carload of wheat depends largely on 
its appearance, its condition, and its test weight. It is a 
matter of common knowledge among farmers that when 
shocked wheat is exposed to a shower it not only loses 
natural color, or "bloom," but may lose as much as a 
pound to the measured bushel. Sometimes exposure to 
rain causes the wheat to sprout, and since sprouted wheat 
does not make a good quality of flour the value of the 
crop is further reduced. 

Sweat in Wheat. When wheat is stacked it goes 
through a process called sweating, in the stack. Wheat 
threshed from the shock goes through the sweat in the 
bin. Buyers an'd millers prefer wheat that has gone 
through the sweat, and they insist that sweating in the 



HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 93 

stack improves the quality of the grain over sweating in 
the bin. Very little is known concerning what changes 
take place when wheat sweats. Sweating is probably due 
to chemical changes. Whatever change occurs is ac- 
companied by heat. Sweating does not take place until 
the wheat has been brought together in large bulk. The 
amount of heat generated appears to be influenced by the 
amount of moisture present. Grain that has been suf- 
ficiently ripened and is also very dry will give little 
evidence of change in temperature in going through the 
sweating process. On the other hand, wheat cut in the 
hard dough stage, or containing considerable moisture, 
goes into the sweat much more quickly when stacked; 
a great deal of heat is produced, and the straw becomes 
very tough. Care should be taken not to stack it until 
it has cured in the shock for a few days; otherwise sufficient 
heat may be produced, even in the stack, to injure the 
grain. Wheat thus injured is known as stack-burnt wheat. 

Heat- damaged, or Bin -burnt. Wheat. When a large 
amount of wheat containing much moisture is placed 
in a bin there is very little chance for circulation of air, 
and the heat generated is retained in the grain. Finally 
the temperature becomes so high as to cause what is 
commonly known to the grain trade as heat-damaged, or 
bin-burnt, wheat. The injury may extend only into the 
branny coats and produce slightly heat-damaged, or 
bran-burnt, wheat, or it may extend throughout the 
endosperm and produce badly heat-damaged, or bin- 
burnt, kernels. Wheat in the latter condition is practically 
unfit for flour-making purposes. 

Milling Kansas Wheats. Kansas produces annually 
from nine and one-half to eleven million barrels of flour. 
Since it takes approximately four and one-half bushels of 



94 



AGRICULTURE 




wheat to make a barrel of flour, the amount of wheat 

ground is from forty-three to fifty million bushels— about 

half the usual 

yield. The 

Kansas winter 

wheats have 

exceptional 

gluten quality, 

or "strength." 

This is an im- 

"nnrtant OUal- An early Indim mill (mortar and pestle). 

ity in wheat, and consequently wheat possessing it is 
much sought after for making the best flours. 

When central and western Kan- 
sas began to be settled it was 
found that the soft winter wheats, 
such as Big May, Little May, Gold 
Drop, Fultz, and Bluestem, grown 
in the eastern part of the state, 
did not withstand so well the more 
rigorous winters and hot, dry sum- 
mers of the central and western 
counties. 

In the early seventies some 

The old mill at Lawrence, KaDsas. MeUnOUitC SCttlcrS frOm SOUthcm 

Russia brought to Marion county the seed of a hard 
red winter wheat which had been successfully grown 
under the severe conditions of their native land. This 
wheat yielded well under the new conditions, and gradually 
became widely grown in Kansas. 

The new wheat was very hard, and therefore did not 
suit the Kansas miller, since he could not prevent the 
branny coat from powdering up until it became so fine 
that it could not be separated from the flour middlings. 




HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 95 

For that reason, the price of the hard winter wheat dechned 
until it sold for twenty-five cents a bushel less than soft 
wheat. Because of its cheapness Kansas millers began 
trying to use this hard wheat. Finally, when chilled-iron 
rollers came into use, about 1881, and when the process 
of tempering or wetting the hard wheat to prevent the 




A i,i ul>rn Kansas mill. 

branny coat from breaking up into fine particles was dis- 
covered, the millers were able to use this wheat success- 
fully. Soon thereafter this hard wheat became very popu- 
lar. The millers had learned how to mill it, and its high 
gluten content produced a superior flour. In a short time 
foreign bakers and millers learned the value of flour made 
from Kansas hard wheats. The Kansas miller was not 
slow to follow up this demand, and before long the prod- 
ucts had even a greater reputation abroad than at home. 
Thus developed the Kansas export trade in wheat and 
flour. 

FLOUR MANUFACTURE 

The first milling was done as by the Indians, with 
mortar and pestle. Later, stone burrs were introduced, 
and the flour was sifted, or bolted. Still later, the stone 
burrs were displaced by steel rollers with both smooth and 



96 AGRICULTURE 

corrugated surfaces. Millers also learned to clean and 
temper properly the wheat before grinding it. Finally, 
better sifters, or bolters, purifiers, reels, and flour dressers 
were invented. 

The modern process of flour manufacture is far more 
complicated than was the process in the days of our fore- 
fathers. Then a small quantity of wheat, called a grist, 
was taken to the old stone burr mill, where it was ground 
into unbolted wheat meal, or what is now known as 
Graham flour. The miller kept a portion of the grist, 
usually from one-twelfth to one-sixth, as toll, or pay for 
grinding. A little later an improvement was made in that 
the ground product was sifted, or bolted, to remove the 
bran and poorer grades of the material. The demand for 
white flour led to one improvement after another, until 
we have the gradual reduction process of to-day, producing 
high-grade, purified flour. 

The modern process consists of 
the following steps: 

I. Preparatory — 

1. Cleaning. 

2. Scouring. 

3. Tempering. 
II. Milling— 

1. Breaking. 

2. Sifting, or bolting. 

3. Purifying. 

4 1-, 1 • A sectional view of modern 

. KedUCmg. double-stand steel rolls. 

5. Dressing. 
Cleaning. The wheat, as it comes to the miller, con- 
tains more or less foreign material, including other grains. 
Most of this material is removed in a preliminary cleaning 
over the receiving separator. This machine is simply a 




HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 97 

large fanning mill, which, by means of screens, air blast, 
and suction, removes the coarse material, such as sticks 
and straws, and also the fine material, consisting mostly 
of weed seeds and dirt particles. The final separations 




A pair of burr stones, used before the advent of steel rolls. 

are made by means of an improved cleaning machine 
known as a milling separator. This removes practically all 
the remaining foreign material. 

Scouring. There still remain, however, fine dust 
particles clinging to the kernel, expecially in the crease, 
and these are removed by scouring, but usually not with 
water. In this process the kernels are thrown, by sets of 
beaters, with considerable force against the slightly rough- 
ened iron sides of the scouring case and also against each 
other. The dust particles, the fine hairs, and the small 
bran particles are thus loosened, and are then removed by 
strong suction applied at one end of the machine. All 
fine material removed from the cleaning and scouring ma- 
chinery by air-suction currents is conveyed through spouts 
to dust collectors. This prevents such material from fly- 
ing about in the mill and getting mixed with the flour. 

Tempering. After the wheat has been cleaned and 
scoured, it is usually necessary, in order to prevent the 
branny coat from grinding up so fine that it will pass 
through the bolting cloth into the flour, to add to the 



98 AGRICULTURE 

wheat a little water or to apply heat, or to do both. This 
is called tempering the wheat. Tempering is especially- 
necessary with hard wheats, because of the more brittle 
character of their bran. 

Breaking. After these preparatory steps the wheat is 
ready for the rolls, and the real milling process begins. 
Milling consists in a gradual reduction of the endosperm, in 
which operation the branny coat and the germ are removed. 
The cleaned and tempered wheat is passed between pairs 
of steel rolls, which gradually reduce the particles to smaller 
size. The first pairs of rolls used have fine grooves on the 
surface, and hence are called corrugated rolls. There are 
usually from three to five pairs of these, which are referred 
to as the break rolls. One roll of each pair turns about two 
and one-half times faster than the other, thus producing a 
sort of shearing, tearing, or grinding motion, instead of 
simply crushing or squeezing the broken grains. 

Sifting or Bolting. Each time after passing between a 
pair of rolls, the stock — the partly ground product — is 
sent through spouts to a sifter, or bolter, where sieves with 
meshes of different sizes placed one above another separate 
the particles according to size and character. The largest 
particles are "scalped off "; that is, do not go through the 
top sieve, but pass over the lower end to the next machine, 
or roll. After the coarser branny particles have passed 
through the several pairs of corrugated rolls, the endo- 
sperm has been practically all removed, and the finished 
flakes of bran have been " scalped off." Those particles 
fine enough to go through the finest silk bolting cloth are 
finished flour. 

Purifying. Particles of endosperm more or less free 
from bits of bran are separated, according to size, by the 
other sieves. The large granular particles, which closely 



HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND MILLING WHEAT 99 

resemble com meal, and are too coarse for flour, are called 
middlings. These are passed through purifiers, where 
gentle suction currents of air lift off the light branny parti- 
cles and fluffy cellulose matter until there remain purified 
middlings which are ready for reduction. 

Reducing. Next comes the gradual reduction of the 
middlings until they become fine enough for flour. This 
is done by passing the stock between pairs of smooth rolls, 
each succeeding pair being set a little closer together so as 
to grind a little finer. Every time the stock is ground by 
a pair of rolls it is elevated to a section of a sifter which 
grades the particles according to size and takes out the 
fine flour. This fine flour may be resifted or bolted on reels 
or flour dressers; this last step in the process is referred to 
as dressing. 

Since the milling process is not perfect, the stock from 
near the end of the process, or "tail of the mill," contains a 
very large proportion of fuzzy, fibrous material and finely 
ground bran. A small amount of poor, or low-grade, flour 
is separated from this; the rest, together with separations 
of somewhat similar character coming from the purifiers, 
goes to make up what is termed shorts. 

Proportion of Total Products. A good sample of Kansas 
Turkey wheat properly milled will yield approximately 
the following percentages: bran, 11 per cent; shorts, 15 
per cent ; total fiour, 73 per cent. This allows for one per 
cent loss through evaporation of moisture and the escape 
of fine dust particles. 

The total flour produced may be divided into different 
grades. The last one and one-half to three per cent of 
flour obtained at the "tail of the mill" is usually termed 
low-grade flour. If all the rest of the flour is packed to- 
gether, it is called straight flour. 



100 AGRICULTURE 

On the other hand, if the flour made by the earlier 
reductions of the purified middhngs is separated from the 
rest it is termed patent flour, and the rest, composed of 
the later reductions and the break flour, is referred to as 
clear flour. When made from the same lot of wheat in 
the same mill the clear flour contains more gluten than 
the patent flour, but this gluten is not of so high quality. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Mention some ways in which v/heat is injured in value during 
harvesting. How does such wlieat differ in appearance from good 
wheat? Why must it be sold at a lower price? 

2. Describe the usual method of harvesting wheat. What mis- 
takes are frequently made in caring for wheat during harvest? 

3. Which method of harvesting do you consider the better? 
Give reasons for your conclusions. 

4. What do we mean by sweat in wheat? 

5. What is the history of the introduction of Turkey wheat into 
Kansas? 

6. Mention some of the improvements made in the process of 
milling. 

7. Of what does the modern process of milling consist? 

8. What is the purpose of tempering wheat, and how is it ac- 
complished? 

9. How does the sifting process differ from the purifying process? 
10. How do the resulting finished products differ? 



CHAPTER XI 

LEGUMES 

The grasses, including corn, wheat, and oats, as well as 
pasture and meadow grasses, are the most important crops 
on the general farm. Next in importance to this great 
grass family comes the pulse family, or the legumes, as 
the plants of this family are usually called. The common 
legumes, such as alfalfa, sweet clover, and red clover, are 
branching, spreading plants which may become woody by 
fall, but die to the ground in winter. 

Description of Legumes. The most distinguishing 
character of the legume is the flower, which is always like 
the sweet pea, except that in most cases it is smaller. 
This flower is made up of an upper broad petal called the 
standard, two spreading petals called the wings, and two 
lower petals united to form what is called the keel. These 
petals of the keel inclose the stamens and pistil. To fer- 
tilize the legumes it is necessary to force the stamens and 
the pistils out of the keel. The seeds are borne in pods, 
which may be straight or variously coiled. Legumes have 
taproots or branching taproots which send out great 
numbers of fine branching rootlets. Some of the legumes, 
such as beans and peas, do not send their roots very deep 
into the soil, while others, like alfalfa and sweet clover, 
penetrate to a depth of several feet. 

The Importance of Legumes. The most important and 
interesting fact connected with the growth of legumes is 
their power to secure nitrogen from the air. Nitrogen is 
found as a free gas in the air, but most plants can not make 

(101) 



102 



AGRICULTURE 



use of it until it is combined with some other elements to 
make what we call nitrates. Nitrogen is essential to all 
plant and animal growth, however, for it is necessary to 
the formation of protein, without which there can be no 
life. The most expensive plant and animal foods are those 
which contain nitrogen. Since legumes are able to secure 
nitrogen from the air, they are of great economic impor- 
tance to the farmer. They are important, first, because 
they may add nitrogen compounds to, instead of taking 
them from, the soil, especially if they are plowed under or 
returned to the soil in manure; secondly, because they con- 
tain a large proportion of protein and are therefore very 
valuable feeds for live stock. Consequently, legumes are 
grown both as soil improvers and for plant and animal food. 
How Legumes Gather Nitrogen. The method of gath- 
ering and fixing nitrogen is very interesting. Legumes can 

do this only through 
the aid of bacteria 
which live in little 
lumps, or nodules, 
on the roots of the 
plants. Ordinarily, 
when alfalfa or clover 
is dug up the nodules 
are torn off, so that many people never see them. If we 
dig up a young plant of alfalfa, together with a lump of 
dirt eight or ten inches in diameter and a foot deep, taking 
care not to break and shatter the dirt, we may wash the 
roots clean and see the small, light-colored nodules. The 
washing must be done very gently, because the nodules are 
easily broken off. Nodules vary from the size of a pinhead 
to that of a small marble, being much larger on some plants 
than on others. Inside these nodules are great numbers 
of bacteria, which have the power of taking free nitrogen 




Roots of soy bean plants, showing nodules. 



LEGUMES 103 

from the air in the soil and combining it with other ele- 
ments in such a way that it can be used as food by the 
legumes. This is of great advantage to the legumes in 
that they need not depend on the soil for all the nitrogen 
that they require. These bacteria will not grow well in 
soil deficient in lime. It is necessary to add lime to 
some soils before legumes will grow in them. 

Inoculation. The kinds of bacteria differ somewhat on 
different kinds of legumes, and frequently it is necessary 
to get some jf the proper kind of bacteria into a soil before 
alfalfa or cowpeas, for example, will grow well. This 
process of introducing bacteria into the soil is called in- 
oculation. A field may be inoculated by bringing earth 
from a field in which the particular legume has grown, 
and mixing this earth into the field ; or the bacteria may 
be added to the moistened seed and so planted with it. 
Many fields are inoculated by the wind, by plows, by 
manure, and by other means. 

How Legumes Differ. Legumes are annuals, as peas 
and beans; biennials, as sweet clover; or perennials, as 
alfalfa. They may be grown for their seed, as are peas 
and beans, or they may be grown chiefly as forage crops, 
as are alfalfa and the clovers. Some, such as the cowpea 
and the soy bean, are used in both ways to a slight extent. 
Besides the important legumes discussed in this chapter, 
many others are of importance elsewhere, such as Canada 
field peas, grown for stock feed in Canada and the northern 
United States, and others grown in the South. 

ALFALFA 

Alfalfa, which is sometimes called lucerne, was first 
grown in the United States more than one hundred years 
ago, but was not at that time considered of much value. 
It was introduced into California and the southwestern 







3^ 

"2 c 



LEGUMES 105 

states about 1850, and has slowly spread over the country 
since that time, until it is now grown more or less in all 
the states. Kansas grows more alfalfa than does any 
other state, but the acreage of alfalfa in Kansas is only 
one-half what it profitably could be. 

Habits of Growth. Alfalfa lives for several years, and 
is therefore called a perennial plant. It begins growth in 
the spring by sending out from the top of the root a 
number of stems. Each stem branches several times. The 
stems gi'ow from one to three feet high. The flowers grow 
out from the point where the leaf joins the stem. Each 
plant has one large root that runs deep into the ground and 
that has few small branches. The long roots obtain water 
from all parts of the soil into which they penetrate. Alfalfa 
roots grow deeper than the roots of most plants, and can 
therefore often obtain water which is beyond the reach of 
shallower-rooted crops. 

Conditions of Growth. Alfalfa requires a deep, well- 
drained soil. It will not live for any great length of time 
in a wet soil. It will stand overflow for several days, if 
the plants are not covered with mud, and if the water 
drains off rapidly, but wet lands must be drained by tile 
drains or open ditches before alfalfa can be grown upon 
them. One cause for the failure of alfalfa in parts of 
eastern Kansas is the poorly drained condition of the soil. 
If water stands in post holes for five or six days after a 
heavy rain, the soil is too wet for this crop. 

Alfalfa will not grow on a soil deficient in lime. When 
planted on a soil in this condition it either produces small, 
yellow, sickly-looking plants, or does not grow at all. Such 
a soil should be limed before alfalfa is sown. 

Some soils are so poor that they will not grow a profit- 
able crop of corn or wheat, yet alfalfa is expected to grow 



106 



AGRICULTURE 



upon them. Alfalfa will not do its best on poor soils. 
They must be enriched with barnyard manure before being 
seeded, and thin applications of manure in the years follow- 
ing will be beneficial. 

Alfalfa grows well in regions too dry for tame grasses 
and clovers, and the crop is therefore important in most 

parts of Kansas. Even in 
states farther east, where 
tame grasses and clovers grow 
well, alfalfa is highly valued 
because it produces three or 
four cuttings in a season, 
while the other hay crops 
produce but one or two. 

Varieties. There are sev- 
eral varieties of alfalfa, just as 
there are varieties of corn or 
wheat. The different varie- 
ties look very much alike, but 
vary in resistance to cold, in 
the amount of hay produced, 
and in the uprightness of the 
stalks. If grown as far north 
as Kansas, some varieties 
freeze out badly in the aver- 
age winter. These are valu- 
able only in the southern 
states. Other varieties are 
highly resistant to cold, and 
are valuable in northern 
states, such as Minnesota and 
Wisconsin. When grown in Kansas the northern varieties 
do not yield so much hay as does the home-grown, or 
American, alfalfa. The American alfalfa is the variety 




Alfalfa plants, showing tlie Ions taproots. 



LEGUMES 



107 




An alfalfa hay barn and feed shed combined. 



first brought to California from Chile, and has been grown 
in Kansas so long that it is well adapted to Kansas 
conditions. 

The Seed Bed. Success in starting alfalfa depends 
largely upon the preparation of the seed bed. A poor seed 

bed has been re- 
sponsible for 
more failures 
with this crop 
than has any 
other one factor, 
except the 
weather. A good 
seed bed is a firm, 
well-settled soil 
with the surface . mellow and finely pulverized as deep as 
the seed is to be sown, A firm seed bed of this character 
allows free movement of the capillary water from the 
subsoil, and at the same time furnishes the plant with 
the proper root hold. Besides being mellow and firm 
at planting time, the seed bed should contain ample 
moisture and available plant food. Time is required to 
store moisture and to liberate plant food ; hence, the ear- 
lier the preparation of the seed bed can begin, the better 
will be the results. 

A very satisfactory bed for fall seeding may be prepared 
by shallow-plowing wheat or spring-grain stubble imme- 
diately after harvest, and working the ground sufficiently 
thereafter to kill all weeds and maintain the soil in good 
tilth until seeding time. The plowing should be as shallow 
as possible to cover the stubble well; otherwise, unless 
heavy rains come between plowing and planting time, it 
will be impossible to establish a firm seed bed. It takes 
several months and considerable rainfall to re-firm a 



108 AGRICULTURE 

deeply plowed soil. Where it is advisable to loosen the soil 
to a considerable depth before seeding, the ground should 
be plowed deeply for the crop preceding alfalfa. A clean 
field of wheat, oats, or barley stubble can be put into good 
seed bed condition by thoroughly disking the stubble under 
soon after the crop has been taken from the land, and then 
keeping it well tilled until planting time. Likewise, in 
favorable seasons, alfalfa may be successfully fall-seeded 
after a crop of cowpeas, flax, or millet, by disking the 
ground thoroughly as soon as possible after the crop is 
removed, and by keeping it well worked until time to plant. 
When alfalfa is to be seeded in the spring, the best seed 
bed can be prepared by plowing the ground the fall pre- 




Five types of alfalfa in one cultms- Observe the variation in manner of growth. 

ceding, leaving it rough over winter, and then working it 
into good condition with the disk and the harrow. A fair 
seed bed can often be prepared in the spring simply by 
disking corn-stubble land, especially where the corn was 
kept well cultivated and free from weeds during its growth. 
When such land can not be fall-plowed, this method is to 
be preferred to spring plowing. 

The Time and Manner of Seeding. Alfalfa may be 



LEGUMES 



109 




A good type of drill for seeding alfalfa 
and clover. 



sown in the fall or the spring. Fall seeding is usually most 
successful in the eastern half of Kansas. Alfalfa sown in 
the early fall becomes fairly well established before winter, 

starts ahead of the weeds the 
next spring, and in the sum- 
mer will produce more hay 
nan if the crop had been 
■pring-sown. Spring-sown al- 
clia is often choked by weeds, 
and when a stand is secured 
an entire year is required to 
start the crop. In western 
Kansas, where the fall is usually too dry to start alfalfa, 
and where grasshoppers are troublesome, the crop is 
most successfully started by seeding in the spring. Spring 
seeding should not be done until the soil is moist and in 
good condition to germinate the seed, and until danger 
of blowing is past. 

The seed may be sown broadcast or drilled. When 
sown broadcast it should be covered from half an inch to 
an inch deep by harrowing. When 
planted with a drill, the seeds are 
all covered to the same depth, so 
that all have the same chance to 
start. The drill covers every seed, 
while the harrow leaves some seeds 
on top which either do not sprout 
at all or dry out and die after they 
start. Drilling also saves several pounds of seed to the 
acre. There is, however, danger of covering the seed too 
deep with a drill, and for this reason many prefer the 
broadcasting method. 

The Rate of Seeding. The best rate at which to sow 
alfalfa varies according to the locality in which it is sown. 




Au alfalfa cultivator. 



110 



AGRICULTURE 



In the central and the eastern part of Kansas, where rain- 
fall is ample, fifteen to twenty pounds of seed should be 
sown, although in a good seed bed, where the plants will 
germinate and grow quickly, one-half this quantity of seed 
will produce sufficient plants to cover the ground thor- 
oughly. In western Kansas, where the rainfall is not 
sufficient to support a heavy growth of alfalfa, light seeding 
will produce best results. From eight to twelve pounds an 
acre will be sufficient. On the uplands even less than this 
should be sown. 

Treatment After Seeding. Spring-seeded alfalfa should 
be mowed, with the sickle bar set high, several times during 

the summer, to keep 
down weeds. Fall-sown 
alfalfa will usually pro- 
duce good hay the first 
summer. Alfalfa is ordi- 
narily not cultivated the 
first summer of its 
growth, but from the 
second summer on at 
least one cultivation a 
season will usually be 
profitable. Light appli- 
cations of manure in the 
winter are very profit- 
able, and in some regions commercial fertilizers supply- 
ing only phosphorus will give good returns. 

The Time for Harvesting. Alfalfa is usually cut for 
hay when about one-tenth of the blossoms are open. For 
all kinds of farm animals except horses, the best hay is 
made by cutting it at about this stage of development. 
When cut for horse feed the crop may better be permit- 
ted to stand until it is in full bloom. It is not always 




An alfalfa field on April 14. Manured on the left, 
uiimauured on the right. 



LEGUMES 



111 



possible to judge, from the stage of blossoming, the 
proper time to cut the hay crop to secure the maxi- 
mum production and at the same time the best quality 
of hay. It is usually best to be governed by the 
development of new shoots at the crown of the plant. 
When new shoots reach a growth of an inch or two the hay 
should be cut. 

Harvesting. There are several methods of haymaking 
commonly followed in harvesting alfalfa. A good practice 

is to cut the alfalfa in the 
morning of a clear day, 
rake it into windrows 
later in the afternoon, 
bunch it with a rake the 
next morning, and put 
the hay into the mow or 
stack by the second af- 
ternoon. Care must be 
used not to shatter the 
leaves, for they contain 
the greater part of the 
food material. It is not 
necessary in Kansas to attempt to cure hay in the cock 
unless rain is probable. The average yield of hay for the 
whole state is two tons an acre. Many farmers, how- 
ever, harvest four or five tons in a good season. 

Seed Production. The second crop of alfalfa is often 
harvested for seed instead of for hay. In the drier parts of 
the country alfalfa is sometimes planted in rows and 
cultivated for seed production. Great care is necessary in 
handling the seed crop, for it is very easy to break off the 
seed pods by rough handling. Yields of from two to five 
bushels an acre are common. 




Stacking alfalfa on a Kansas farm. 



112 AGRICULTURE 

The Eflfect of Alfalfa on the Land. Alfalfa is generally 
regarded as a soil-improving crop, and when allowed to 
stand only five or six years it does enrich the soil. This re- 
sult is more evident, however, in the states of heavy rain- 
fall than in Kansas. When alfalfa stands are allowed to 
remain ten or fifteen years in central and western Kansas, 
succeeding crops do not grow properly, partly because the 
alfalfa roots have exhausted the subsoil of water. In these 
regions kafir is a better crop to follow alfalfa than is corn, 
because kafir grows well in a drier soil. For the best results 
from alfalfa the hay should be fed on the farm, and the 
manure produced by the stock should be carefully saved 
and returned to the soil. 

CLOVERS 

The clovers constitute an important group of legumes. 
There are several varieties, varying in habits of growth 
and in usefulness. The different varieties are adapted to 
different conditions and uses. There are annual, biennial, 
and perennial varieties. All have very fibrous roots, which 
extend comparatively deep into the soil. The taller 
varieties are cut for hay, and furnish a feed rich in protein. 
Other varieties are prized for pasture. 

Since they require considerable moisture, clovers are 
more widely grown in the states farther east than in 
Kansas. Clovers can be grown profitably only in the 
eastern fourth of the state. Clovers will not grow on 
soil deficient in lime, and will do best if the bacteria 
particularly suited to the given variety are present. 
Clovers are seeded in a manner similar to that employed 
in sowing grass. 

Red Clover. Red clover, also called little red, medium 
red, and common clover, is a biennial. It may be seeded 



LEGUMES 



113 



in fall or in spring. Fall seedings very frequently winter- 
kill, and late freezing frequently kills the stand from spring 
seedings. Spring seedings with small grain usually furnish 
good pasture the following fall. In 
the second summer the plants will 
bloom when from eighteen to thirty 
inches high, and if cut then will make 
u, valuable hay. There usually fol- 
lows a second growth which may be 
used for pasture or cut for hay or 
seed. Red clover and timothy are 
frequently sown together, their yield 
and their feeding value being thereby 
increased. 

Crimson Clover. Crimson clover is 
an annual which is seeded in August 
or September to furnish winter and 
early spring pasture, to serve as a 
cover crop, or to be 
plowed under for a 
green manure. The plants mature in 
the spring and may be cut for hay, but 
frequently rains at this season make 
harvesting difficult. Crimson clover 
is not well adapted to Kansas con- 
ditions. 

Mammoth Clover. Mammoth clo- 
ver, also known as cow clover, can not 
be easily distinguished from red clover 
except by its greater size and by the 
fact that it seldom makes more than one crop of hay 
a season. The roots are longer, and the plant seems 
to stand dry weather better than does the ordinary 




Medium red clover, show- 
ing the root development in 
the second year of growth. 




A plot of red clover making 
a good growth of excellent hay. 



114 



AGRICULTURE 




red clover. The yields of hay from the two varieties are 

practically the same. 

Alsike Clover. Alsike clover will grow well in lands so 

wet that other clovers die out. Its root system is more 
fibrous, and the stems are finer than 
in other varieties. Because the hay 
is finer, it is considered better for 
sheep than that of the other clovers. 
A little alsike mixed with grass and 
other clover seed will provide a 
cover for the wet or boggy spots. 

Sweet Clover. Sweet clover is 
not closely related to the clovers 
already mentioned, but is a legume 
of considerable importance. It is 

A red clover plant. 

a biennial plant, which 
in the first year sel- 
dom flowers, but 
grows from eighteen 
to thirty inches tall. 
It dies to the ground 
the first winter. I n 
the second spring, 
new shoots spring up 
like those of alfalfa. 
These reach a height 
of from five to seven 
feet if not cut for hay 
or pastured. It 

<ltn n rl « nn Qfl l ri n C wreA 1 Sweet clover ready to be plowed under for green manure. 

If cut for hay, it must be harvested before the blossoms 
come out, because after blossoming the plants rapidly 




LEGUMES 115 

become woody. If cut when in full bloom, the plants 
usually die. Owing to its bitter taste, stock must acquire 
an appetite for it, but, having once acquired the taste, 
they eat it readily. It makes a hay of fair quality. If 
the crop is harvested at the proper time, another growth 
starts from the stubs still remaining, and three cuttings 
can be obtained in the ordinary season. 

Sweet clover has grown wild along roadways and ditches 
for many years. It is one of our most valuable plants for 
improving poor or gravelly soils. Its value as a hay and 
pasture crop has been learned only in recent years, and 
many persons at present are slow to try it. Sweet clover 
will not grow on acid soils, but does well under practically 
all other conditions. It will grow in sand, in overflow land, 
or on the steepest and rockiest of hillsides, and in the drier 
parts of the state. There are a white variety and a yellow 
variety. The white variety is usually preferred. 

Other Clovers. Other clovers of less importance are 
white clover, used in lawns and pastures of Kentucky blue 
grass, bur clover, and lespedeza, or Japan clover. 

COWPEAS 

The cowpea plant first came to the United States about 
1734, when it was brought into the Oglethorpe colony in 
Georgia. It has been grown for many years in the southern 
states for hay, seed, pasture, and green manure. Only in 
recent years have attempts been made to grow it in the 
northern states. 

The cowpea is an annual legume producing stems about 
two feet high. Some varieties have vines several feet in 
length, while others have scarcely any vines. The leaves 
are shiny and large, and the blossoms are small. After 
blooming starts there are blossoms and pods in all stages 
of development until the plant dies or is killed by frost. 



116 



AGRICULTURE 




Cowpeas, showing the development of 
♦.he roots. 



The cowpea seed resembles the oi'dinary garden bean. 
The pods are from six to twelve inches in length. The 
root system consists of a taproot from which many branch 

roots are sent out. They ex- 
tend deep into the soil, the 
plant being one of the deepest- 
rooted annuals. The roots 
bear nodules in the same 
manner as alfalfa, but cowpea 
nodules are much larger than 
alfalfa nodules. 

Conditions of Growth. Cow- 
peas are adapted for growth on 
a wide variety of soils. They 
make their best growth on a rich loam, well supplied 
with plant food, but on poor soils will do very well in 
comparison with 
other plants. 
Grown on poor 
soil, cowpeas 
tend more to 
seed production, 
while on rich 
soils they pro- 
duce more vine. 
They are grown 
successfully i n 
states farther 
north than Kan- 
sas, although 
earlier-maturing varieties must then be used. The time 
required for maturity varies from seventy-five to one 
hundred and twenty days. Cowpeas do well on nearly 
all soils in Kansas if supplied with sufficient moisture. 




Cowpeas and soy beans, showing variation in manner of growth. 
Three varieties of cowpeas on the left; three varieties of soy beans 
on the right. 



LEGUMES 



117 



They do not seem to need inoculation in this state. Soils 
of medium fertility are best. For drier regions the early- 
maturing varieties should be chosen. 

Seed-bed Preparation. As with most other crops, we 
can not expect cov/peas to do their best unless we prepare 

the ground 
well and are 
sure there is a 
fair amount of 
plant food and 
moisture in it. 
Since they are 
planted late, 
spring plowing 
is generally 
practiced when 
they form the 
main crop of 
the season. 
Plowing is fre- 
quently done 
early, and the 
Cowpeas planted in corn. ground Is Cul- 

tivated several times to kill weeds and store moisture. 
Cowpeas are often seeded as a catch crop after wheat. 
In this case the stubble is disked as soon as possible after 
the wheat is removed. Sometimes they are seeded with 
a disk drill without previous working of the soil, if the soil 
is clean and not baked. They may be seeded in corn or 
kafir on bottom land either at the time of planting or at 
the last cultivation. 

Seeding. When cowpeas are to be used as the only 
crop on the field in a season, the seed is planted about the 




118 



AGRICULTURE 



last week in May or the first week in June. If they are 
seeded in rows, planting may be done with a corn planter, 
or a wheat drill may be used, provided that some of the 
holes of the drill are closed. They 
may also be seeded broadcast or in 
rows six to ten inches apart with a 
grain drill. Broadcast or close-row 
seeding produces best results when 
about one bushel of seed is sown to 
the acre. 

Cultivation. Where cowpeas are 
planted in rows, they can be culti- 
vated and the weeds kept down. 
Where they are not in rows, weeds 
sometimes grow up so thick that 
they spoil the hay crop. Cultivating 
is done with the same tools and in the 
same manner as in the case of corn. 
It is best not to cultivate after the 
blossoms appear, for cultivation 
keeps the vines growing and vine growth is not wanted 
after the plants begin to bloom. 

Harvesting. Cowpea hay is full of coarse stems which 
are very woody if allowed to get too ripe. It should there- 
fore be harvested for hay when the pods first begin to 
turn yellow. When harvested for seed cowpeas may be 
cut when most of the pods are ripe. Harvesting is done 
with a mower, and the plants are allowed to lie in small 
piles in the field for several days to cure. The coarse 
stems of the cowpea dry out more slowly than fine- 
stemmed grass or alfalfa. Therefore cowpea hay must 
be well cured before it is stacked or stored in the barn, 
else the hay is likely to spoil or to take fire. 




A field of cowpeas grown for 
seed. 



LEGUMES 



119 



Cowpeas for Green Manuring. In Kansas cowpeas are 
more important as a green manuring crop than as a hay 
or seed crop. The plants are valuable sources of humus 
and nitrogen because of the short time required to mature, 
the luxuriant growth, and hence large amount of nitrogen 
gathered from the air. For green manuring, cowpeas 
should be planted on wheat or oats stubble which was 
disked immediately after harvesting. The crop should be 
plowed under in the fall, and the ground planted to corn 
or sorghum the following year. 

SOY BEANS 

The soy bean plant is similar to the cowpea in the time 
and the manner of growth. It has not so many vines, how- 
ever, and the stem, the leaves, and the pods are covered 





■-^"tmrn ■ i-MMt m,msil(ir ,1 


^^ 




^•^^'^''^HufmK^llB^^KSIlSKKl^liSSBtsmU^SB 


WSK^^^m 



Soy beans in rows at the Kansas Experiment Station. 

with tiny hairs. The pods are only one or two inches long. 
The bean itself looks like a garden pea, and the colors 
range from cream to black. 

Soy beans will stand more drouth than cowpeas, and 
also will stand more wet weather than cowpeas or corn. 



120 AGRICULTURE 

On the poorest soils cowpeas will probably be more profit- 
able than soy beans. Where used for hay or where plowed 
under for green manure, cowpeas and soy beans produce 
practically the same effect on the land. Inoculation is 
necessary for the best results with soy beans. 

The feeding value of soy bean and that of cowpea hay or 
pasture are practically the same. The two are often sown 
in a mixture of two parts of soy beans to one part of cow- 
peas, the soy beans serving to hold up the cowpea vines, 
thus making them easier to handle for hay. 

Soy beans are more profitable as a grain crop than are 
cowpeas, twenty to twenty-five bushels an acre of soy 
beans being obtainable as against only twelve to fifteen 
bushels of cowpeas. 

The Value of Cowpeas and Soy Beans. As the need of 
a legume adapted for use in short rotations is felt more 
and more, both these crops, and especially cowpeas, will 
be more generally grown in Kansas. They produce hay 
and grain that rank high among farm feeds. They do 
this, moreover, in a short period of time, and when har- 
vested leave the ground in excellent condition for the 

next crop. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give all the reasons you can for the importance of legumes on 
the farm. 

2. How do legumes gather nitrogen from the air? Why is their 
ability to do this important? 

3. What is meant by inoculation? How may a field be inocu- 
lated? 

4. Under what conditions of soil moisture will alfalfa fail? When 
will it do best? When better than most crops? Why? 

5. How does lack of lime affect alfalfa plants? How can the 
effect be remedied? 

6. Describe a good seed bed for alfalfa. How may it be secured? 

7. When is the proper time of the year to sow alfalfa? Why? 

8. How much seed should one sow to the acre? How does this 
amount vary? 



LEGUMES 121 

9. When should alfalfa be cut for hay? Why? 

10. Name the varieties of clover and tell briefly how they differ. 

11. What clover grows best in wet soils? 

12. Describe sweet clover. How does it differ in usefulness, 
conditions of growth, and other details, from other clovers? 

13. What special advantages have cowpeas as a crop? What 
different uses are made of them? 

14. How are cowpeas planted? How are they harvested for hay? 
for seed? 

15. How do soy beans differ from cowpeas in appearance, adap- 
tation to Kansas conditions, extent to which used? 



CHAPTER XII 

GRASSES 

We have already studied corn, wheat, oats, barley and 
rye, five important members of the grass family. These 
grasses, known as cereals, are grown chiefly for their seed, 
which is called grain. They are valuable for food because 
of the quantity of starch, oil, and protein stored in the 
grain. 

The other important group of cultivated grasses is made 
up of those which are valuable because of the food stored 
in their stems and leaves. These are grown for hay or 
pasture, and are the ones usually thought of when grasses 
are mentioned. In this chapter we shall understand the 
word "grasses" to refer only to these plants. 

For convenience we may divide the grasses grown in 
this state into native, or wild prairie, grasses, and tame 
grasses. 

Native Grasses. The native grasses are classified as 
tall and short. The tall grasses grow chiefly in the eastern 
half of Kansas, and include big bluestem, little bluestem, 
tall grama, wild oats, and slough grasses. They have 
long roots that grow deep into the soil, and to grow well 
must have considerable rain. The tall native grasses are 
both pastured and cut for hay. The short grasses are 
mainly buffalo grass and grama grass, and grow, for the 
most part, in western Kansas. These short native grasses 
furnish excellent pasture for live stock, but do not grow 
tall enough to be cut for hay. When the native sod is 

(122) 



GRASSES 



123 



plowed and the grasses are killed, it requires several years 
to reestablish a good sod. 

Where too much stock is pastured on the land, the 
grasses gradually die out, and 
weeds take their place. Grass weak- 
ened by excessive pasturing can 
be improved by light pasturing for 
two or three years, and by disking 
of the sod so as to encourage new 
roots and stems to grow. 

Tame Grasses. Tame grasses 
are so called because they have 
been grown and improved by man. 
Most of the tame grasses were 
brought to America from Europe, 
where they had been grown for 
centuries. 

West of the Missouri river, tame 
grasses are not commonly grown. 
In Kansas they are limited almost 
entirely to the eastern third of the 
state. 

After tame grasses have grown in a drier country for 
several years, they seem to become able to live there 
better than at first, and it is hoped that some of them can 
be changed in this way so that they will grow well in the 
drier parts of the state. One reason that the tame grasses 
are so important, aside from their larger yield of hay, is 
that they produce enough seed to be harvested and sold. 
Because the native grasses do not produce enough seed 
to be harvested profitably, they can not be reseeded. 

Kinds of Tame Grasses. The tame grasses may be 
classified as pasture grasses and hay grasses. The pasture 




Lave dense fibrous root 
systems. 



124 



AGRICULTURE 



grasses must form a dense sod that will stand tramping by 
animals. They should grow eai'ly in the spring to furnish 
spring pasture, and should keep growing all through the 
summer and the fall till cold weather comes. Not all of 
them will grow vigorously all this time. Because the time 
of vigorous growth varies with different grasses, a mixture 
is often best for pastures. Pasture grasses need not grow 
tall. The hay grasses need not come on so early or grow 
so late, for when they are once cut they have served their 




A native hillside pasture in good condition. 

main purpose. They are more valuable, however, if they 
do grow early, for they may then be pastured for a time 
and later allowed to grow up for hay. They are still more 



GRASSES 



125 



valuable if they grow up again after being cut, and furnish 
fall pasture. 

TAME PASTURE GRASSES 

Kentucky Blue Grass. Kentucky blue grass is the 
great pasture 
grass of the east- 
e r n and central 
states. It forms a 
dense sod and 
grows early in the 
spring and late in 
the fall, but dies 
down during the 
hot summer 
weather. It fur- 
nishes much pas- 
ture, and if al- 
lowed to grow up 
reaches a height 
of eighteen to 
twenty-four 
inches and makes 
fair ha3^ On the 
glacial soil of 
northeastern Kan- 
sas and the lime- 
stone soils of 
southeastern Kansas it grows naturally in all pastures 
and on the hillsides. Farther west it does best in the 
bottoms. White clover usually grows with blue grass, 
and helps to make a good sod. Where it does not burn 
out in summer, blue grass is well adapted to lawns. 

Bermuda Grass. Bermuda grass has not yet been able 
to live through the coldest winters of central and northern 




Weeds in a native hillpide pasture. The gra^s has t)een killed 
by too close frrazing and weeds have taken the place of the grass. 



126 



AGRICULTURE 




Kentucky blue grass. This 
grass makes a thick, fine growth, 
and for this reason forms excel- 
lent pasture in eastern Kansas. 



Kansas. It does well only in the most southern counties. 
It is a grass adapted to the southern states, but makes 
good lawns in southeastern Kansas, 
and may in time be used for pasture. 
The hai'diness of the plant is increas- 
ing, and before long it may be able 
to live through the hardest winters. 
It forms a dense sod, and makes an 
excellent pasture. It stands dry, hot 
weather better than any other grass, 
and after such weather has the abil- 
ity to spring up very quickly when 
a good rain falls. It is propagated 
by scattering small tufts of sod three 
or four feet apart each way on well- 
prepared land. In favorable seasons a good sod is formed. 
Mixtures for Pastures. Mixtures of the taller-growing 

grasses used for hay are also very valuable for pastures. 

Some of the hay grasses, when sown alone, do not make a 

good sod that stands tramping well, 

but when mixed with others make 

excellent pastures. One of the best 

combinations of grasses for pasture 

in eastern Kansas comprises meadow 

fescue, ten pounds; orchard grass, 

ten pounds; brome grass, eight 

pounds; and medium red clover, six 

pounds an acre. For central Kansas 

a good combination consists of brome 

grass, ten pounds; orchard grass, 

twelve pounds; western rye grass, 

eight pounds; and alfalfa or sweet 

clover, six pounds an acre. For 

western Kansas the following com- 

, . . . I'll 1 Meadow fescue, or English 

bmation is desirable: brome grass, blue grass. 





'■f' 


2 


1 



GRASSES 



127 



fourteen pounds; western rye grass, eight pounds, or tall 
meadow oat grass, twelve pounds; and sweet clover, ten. 
pounds an acre. 

TAME GRASSES FOR HAY 

Timothy. Timothy is the standard hay grass of 
America. It is regarded as the best hay for horses, al- 
though not so nutritious as alfalfa 
or the clovers. It grows to a 
height of from two to four feet, 
and forms a rather coarse, stemmy 
hay. In Kansas timothy does best 
on bottom land that is fairly moist 
and fertile, but will not stand wet 
soils. It does not furnish much 
pasture after the hay is cut, and 
often burns out badly in the hot 
weather following cutting. For 
cattle and sheep a better quality 
of hay is made from a mixture of 
timothy and red clover. 

Orchard Grass. Orchard grass 
stands more drouth than meadow 
fescue or Kentucky blue grass, but 
not so much as brome grass. It 
does very well in eastern Kansas, 
where, because of its early spring 
gi'owth, it is often used in mixtures 
for pastures. It grows in clumps, Timothy. 

and does not make a smooth sod. It grows well in shade. 
Orchard grass makes good hay when cut early, but the 
large stems soon become coarse if allowed to stand too 
long before being cut. 

Meadow Fescue. Meadow fescue is commonly called 




128 



AGRICULTURE 



English blue grass. It does best south of the Kansas river 
and for about a hundred miles west of the eastern border 
of the state. This region produces nearly all the English 
blue-grass seed grown in the Uni- 
ted States. This grass grows best 
on fertile bottom land, but does well 
on uplands in the region mentioned. 
It is valuable for pasture, but not 
so good for hay as timothy. 

Brome Grass. Brome grass 
makes a good hay, but is essentially 
a pasture grass. The stand at 
first may be thin, but it rapidly 
makes a firm sod, and later often 
needs disking to relieve its sod- 
bcund condition. It stands the dry 
conditions of the plains farther 
north, where only from twelve to 
fifteen inches of rain falls in the 
season. It is usually sown by 
hand, as the seeds are too large to 
pass readily through a seeder. 

Western Rye Grass. Western 
rye grass is a native American 
grass. It excels brome grass in 
withstanding cold and drouth, but does not do well in hot 
summers. It starts late in the spring, and ceases growth 
early in the autumn, but makes a good late spring and 
summer pasture. 

Redtop. Redtop is well adapted to poor soils and soils 
that are not well drained. It is of much value in south- 




Orchard grass. 



eastern Kansas, 
or pasture. 



It is not so palatable as timothy for hay 



GRASSES 



129 



Other Tame Grasses. Other tame grasses of more or 
less importance are: tall meadow oat-grass, Italian rye 
grass, perennial rye grass, meadow foxtail, reed canary 
grass. Owing to the danger of its spreading and becoming 
a pest, the seed of Johnson grass can not legally be sold in 
Kansas. This grass is a large producer in southern states. 




A field of timothy. 

Seeding. Most grass seeds are very small, and 
therefore great care must be taken in the preparation of 
the seed bed. It must be firm beneath, and have finely 
pulverized soil on top to cover the seed. Fall-plowed land 
is best for spring-seeded grass. If the grass is seeded in the 
fall, the land should have had time to become firm, hence 
plowing should be done in July. The seed should be 
covered about half an inch deep, and sufficient moisture 
should be in the soil to sprout the seed and keep the young 
plants growing. It is best to wait if it is dry, and sow the 
seed as soon after a rain as possible. Seeding in a nurse 
crop of wheat, oats, or other grain is usually not advisable. 



130 AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the points of resemblance in the plants belonging 
to the group called grasses? 

2. What is the difference in the use of the tall native grasses and 
that of the short native grasses? Name two grasses of each kind. 

3. What are tame grasses? Where did most of them come from? 
What is the most important difference between tame and unculti- 
vated grasses? 

4. In what part of Kansas is the tame grass crop of most impor- 
tance? Why are tame grasses not more generally grown in other 
parts of the state? 

5. How do hay grasses and pasture grasses differ in growth? 

6. What is the most important pasture grass in the eastern states ? 
Where does it grow best in Kansas? 

7. To what regions is Bermuda grass native? Describe its man- 
ner of 'growth. Why is it not more generally grown in Kansas? 

8. What is the standard hay grass of America? Why? In what 
part of Kansas is it grown? Why is it not more generally grown in 
this state? 

9. What are the good qualities of orchard grass? What are its 
disadvantages? 

10. Where is most of the meadow fescue seed produced in the 
United States grown? 

11. To what conditions and uses is brome grass well adapted? 

12. Where is redtop grown? 

13. When and how should one prepare the seed bed for fall seed- 
ing of grasses? 

14. Make a list of all the tame grasses, their chief uses, and the 
regions in which they are commonly grown. 



CHAPTER XIII 

HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS ARE IMPROVED 

Wild plants and animals are seldom exactly suitable 
for man's use, although they are generally well suited to 
the wild condition. Plants and animals are domesticated 
in order that man may have a food supply that will be 
certain and always ready. Most of the domesticated food 
plants have been in cultivation for thousands of years. 
Wheat, rice, barley, and sorghum; apples, pears, and 
peaches; cabbage, turnips, and onions — to name only a 
few examples — have been in cultivation for at least four 
thousand years. F004 plants have been cultivated longer 
than forage plants. 

Variation. Plants vary under cultivation. Whenever 
a plant is taken into cultivation it seems to break up into 
races and varieties. Let us take, as an example, the 
cabbage and its relatives. We have cabbage itself, in 
which there is a short stem with a clump of leaves folded 
into a ball; savoy cabbage, with finely crinkled leaves; 
cauliflower, in which the plant consists of a short, thick- 
ened flower head, resting in a nest of leaves. There is 
Brussels sprouts, which has a tall stem covered with little 
cabbage heads borne along its length. There is kohl-rabi, 
in which the stem becomes a thick, solid ball, like a turnip 
above the ground. Finally, there is kale, a plant in which 
the leaves grow up like lettuce, without a visible stem. 
All these very different kinds of vegetables came originally 
from the wild cabbage, a plant native to the coast of 

(131) 




Plants may be greatly modified in habits of growth by selection. All these different plants have 
been produced by man from wild cabbage: 1, wild cabbage; 2, kale; 3, cauliflower; 4, kohl-rabi; 5, 



HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS ARE IMPROVED 133 

Europe from Denmark to southern France. In these 
various races we may see that man has developed different 
parts of the plant for his own use as food. In each race 
there are many cultivated varieties. For example, there 
are at least sixty varieties of white cabbage, nearly twenty 
of red cabbage, thirty of savoy cabbage, thirty of cauli- 
flower, ten of Brussels sprouts, twenty of kohl-rabi, and 
thirty-five of kale — in all nearly two hundred of what are 
called varieties, belonging to five different races that have 
all come from the wild cabbage. 

Wheat is one of the oldest of cultivated plants, and 
there are to-day perhaps five hundred varieties, some 
of which have red while some have white kernels; some 
have hard while some have soft grains; some are 
bearded and some beardless; some have hairy while 
some have smooth chaff. Indian corn, which is a very 
ancient grain of American origin, has hundreds of 
varieties, divided among six principal races; namely, the 
dent, flint, sweet, pop, soft, and podded groups of 
corn. Of the most useful race — the dent corn — there are, 
of course, the most varieties. When corn breeding began 
in America the varieties of dent corn then grown would 
not mature in the far northern part of the country. Corn 
growing was unknown in the far northern part of the 
Middle West. Now Minnesota and the Dakotas raise 
abundant crops of the ninety-day varieties of dent corn 
that have been developed within recent years. 

At the beginning of the Christian era there were prob- 
ably no more than a dozen varieties of cultivated apples. 
Now there are more than a thousand, adapted to a most 
remarkable variety of soils and locations. 

Improving Plants by Selection. By selection, the 
tomato has been changed from a small fruit the size of a 



134 



AGRICULTURE 



cherry, believed by the people then living to be poison- 
ous, to a large, smooth fruit which is now considered a 
table delicacy. We have seedless oranges, prunes, and 
raisin grapes formerly unknown. We have found varie- 
ties of wheat that are not attacked by rust, cowpeas 
not attacked by wilt, and other disease-resisting plants. 




Branches from alfalfa plants hawng different kinds of leaves but growing in the 
same field. 

Plant improvement has progressed more rapidly than 
ever before, because of man's increased knowledge. The 
search for plants capable of improvement now goes on in 
every civilized country, though it is constantly more diffi- 
cult to find such plants that are not being used. 



HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS ARE IMPROVED 135 

Breeding by Selection. There are two ways in which 
we have obtained these many kinds of improved plants: 
first, selection; second, crossing, or hybridization. To 
improve plants by selection, we may go into any field 
of either wild or cultivated plants, and find some 
that seem to be better than others. By saving the 
seeds of these and by planting them separately we 
may find that all the plants that come from these seeds 
are also better than the average, just as was the plant first 
selected. If we find this to be true, and if the plants 
"come true," as we say, then we know that we have a new 
and improved race of plants. In this way originated 
squarehead, white Victoria, and other varieties of wheat. 
The Concord grape came from a chance seedling which 
Ephraim Bull found on his Massachussetts farm. Schuyler 
Worden selected the first Worden grape from several 
seedlings of a Concord grape. Luther Burbank, while 
still a young man, sowed the seed from a potato seed ball, 
and from one of the plants gave us the Burbank potato. 

Recently men have learned the value of these new and 
better varieties, and they look more carefully than ever 
before for plants that will be more valuable. Not only do 
they look in their own fields, gardens, and woods, but 
experts are sent to all countries of the world to try to get 
improved plants which can be grown at home. Several 
new plants are now grown here because of the work of 
these experts. Every farmer, and every boy and girl, 
however, can help to improve the plants on the home farm 
by careful selection of seed plants. 

Improving Corn. Plant breeders have invented many 
effective methods of improving plants. One of the best 
of these is seen in the breeding of corn. If we go into any 
field of ordinary corn, we shall always find a few better- 
appearing plants, bearing better-looking ears. If we take 



136 



AGRICULTURE 



such ears from each of twenty-five plants and if we plant 
the seeds from each ear separately in a long row, we shall 
find, if we harvest each row separately, that there will be 
many striking differences in the yield of the different rows. 
If we now discard the iced from all the poorer rows, and 
plant only the seed from the best rows, we have taken the 
first step in corn improvement. We may now plant our 
improved corn in a block far enough from other corn so 
that there will be no danger of 
cross-pollination, and save for seed 
ears the best produced in this block. 
Repeating this method year after 
year insures steady improvement. 
Hildreth, Kansas Sunflower, and 
Pride of Saline are among the vari- 
eties of corn which have been origi- 
nated in Kansas simply by selection. 

Improving Wheat. Wheat has 
been improved in a similar way. 
Since, however, the flowers of 
wheat are always self-pollinated, 
one year's selection is generally 
sufficient to obtain a pure kind of 
wheat. 

In improving wheat, a good qual- 
ity of ordinary wheat is planted in 
a nursery so that the plants are 
a short distance apart. One may 
then carefully examine each plant, 
and save in separate packages the 
seed of plants which seem to be 
superior. The following year the 
seed from each superior plant is 
sown in a row alone, and the yield of the various 




Striped com (grown as an orna- . 
menti, which bears an ear at each 
joint, and ordinary field corn, which 
bears only one or two ears. The 
latter has been developed by many 
years of selection. 



HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS ARE IMPROVED 137 

rows is compared. The seed from the most promising 
row, or the most promising plant in a row, is saved 
and sown again. By repeating the process and increas- 
ing the amount of seed sown we may get a new variety 
in sufficient quantity to sow a whole field. 

Before a new variety of wheat is generally adopted, 
it should be subjected to milling and baking tests so that 
we may know something of its flour- and bread-making 
qualities. This is not necessary in the case of corn, be- 
cause it is used chiefly for animal food. 

Alfalfa and timothy have been and are still being im- 
proved by propagation from selected plants. Alfalfa is 
selected for yield, uprightness, hardiness, and other char- 
acteristics. 

In breeding by selection we must observe one rule: 
We must always begin with the seed of a single close-fer- 
tilized mother plant. This is called pure-line breeding, 
and is the method followed by the most successful plant 
breeders every whei'e. 

Breeding by Hybridization. By selection we obtain 
only that which nature has already provided. While we 
introduce new varieties in this way, we do not produce 
them. Nature produces them for us, and we simply find 
them, and save" them, and grow them separately. By 
crossing plants, we may be able to originate many new 
kinds of plants. The plant which is produced by crossing 
two other plants is called a hybrid. Sometimes plant 
hybrids are sterile; that is, they will not produce fertile 
seed. It is very easy, for example, to cross wheat and rye, 
but it is very seldom that a hybrid between wheat and rye 
will itself bear seed. Plants are crossed, or hybridized, by 
taking the pollen from the anthers of the flower of one 
plant and putting it on the stigmas of the flower of another 
plant. This has been done by breeders with wheat, corn, 



138 AGRICULTURE 

and all the other cereals, and with strawberries and all 
the bush fruits, such as blackberries and raspberries and 
the like, as well as with grapes, plums, apples, and many 
other fruits. 

After plants have been crossed they generally will not 
continue to breed true, but will break up into different 
kinds in a way that is well understood. For instance, if 
we should cross a bearded wheat with a beardless wheat, 




A field of sorghum unselected. The stand can be made uniform by selectins seeds from single plants 
and growing them pure. 

all the hybrid wheat would be beardless; but in another 
year it would break up into bearded and beardless kinds. 
If we cross apples, peaches, or grapes, they will break up in 
the next generation in case we plant the seeds. When we 
get a hybrid of a perennial fruit tree, or of a grape vine, 
or of a berry plant, we do not, however, sow the seed of 
that plant to get new plants for the next year. We prop- 
agate the original plant by budding or grafting, or by 
making cuttings. In this way the original plant is multi- 
plied a great many times. For example, McPike crossed 
the Niagara grape with the Worden grape, and ob- 
tained a new hybrid variety with enormous purple fruit 
which had a very thin skin and but one or two seeds to 



HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS ARE IMPROVED 139 



the berry. This hybrid he propagated by cuttings until 
he obtained a large vineyard. Most garden strawber- 
ries are hybrids. If they were propagated by seeds they 
would soon break up and disappear. Strawberries, how- 
ever, are propagated by runners, and all the plants that 
come from the runners are exactly like the original one. 
Luther Burbank crossed the plum and apricot and 
produced the plumcot. He produced a hybrid walnut 
which grows much faster than the original walnut and 
produces a valuable hard wood. He also produced hybrid 
chestnut trees which bear at the age of a year and a half. 




A pure stand of sorghum from selected heads. Notice the evenness of the stand. 

and a hybrid cactus which is thornless and may be 
used for forage. By crossing the wild native sand cher- 
ries of South Dakota with standard plums, Professor 
Hansen produced fruits that are larger and better than 
the native wild fruits and that are perfectly hardy in 
the northern winters. Many other examples of such 
improvement might be given. We must keep in mind 
that this method is especially useful for garden fruits 



140 AGRICULTURE 

that are perennial, and that can be multiphed by bud- 
ding, by grafting, or by making cuttings. 

Animal Improvement. Domestic animals, such as 
cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs, as well as such house ani- 
mals as the dog and the cat, have all come from a few wild 
types of animals. For example, all our sixty or more 
domestic breeds of cattle probably came originally from 
two or three very ancient breeds that ran wild in the 
forests of Europe thousands of years ago. All our different 
breeds and kinds of horses probably came from three 
different wild breeds. The draft horses as well as the 
Iceland and Shetland ponies probably came from a dwarf 
wild horse that lived in the forests of Europe and browsed 
upon the small trees and shrubs. The race horses and 
roadsters came from the desert horses of Arabia and 
northeastern Africa or from a wild horse of the highlands 
of eastern Asia. The history of sheep and hogs is similar. 
Though there are many breeds to-day, they all came 
from a few kinds of wild ancestors. 

What we have to learn from a study of all the different 
kinds of domestic animals is that man has found a great 
many variations springing up among those animals which 
he has taken in to domesticate, and that, by saving indi- 
viduals that show this or that useful or interesting trait, 
he has succeeded in forming a great many breeds. 

Pure Breeds. The breeds of domestic animals are now 
most of them fairly pure, and will generally breed true. 
For example, from a herd of Jerseys we always get Jersey 
cattle, and not Holsteins or Herefords. From a herd of 
Poland China hogs we never get Berkshires or Duroc- 
Jerseys. Within each breed, however, breeders are con- 
tinually finding new variations. On the island of Jersey 
the breed is kept pure by a law which forbids the importa- 
tion of any other than Jersey cattle except they be 



HOW PLANTS AND ANIMALS ARE IMPROVED 141 

slaughtered within twenty-four hours after landing. In 
this way the Jersey breed of cattle has been kept very 
pure and is very uniform. The American registered 
Jerseys have all come from the pure island stock. The 
Anterican Jersey breed is, nevertheless, different from the 
original, being a larger animal, having heavier bones, and 
giving a higher yield of butter fat. Through having been 
bred chiefly for butter fat production, the American 
Jersey has gradually changed its form from that of the 
Jersey on the island, where more attention is paid to 
beauty of form, and less to utility. By being bred for 
beef production, a standard type of animal such as was 
never known wild has been produced through selection, 
yet all the breeds of beef animals have probably come 
from a single wild breed. The modern breeds of hogs, 
bred exclusively for the amount of meat they will pro- 
duce, are so weak in the legs that they can not carry their 
own bodies to market; whereas the wild hog from which 
they came has a thin, long, rangy body, with long legs, 
and is thus capable of running and escaping its enemies. 
After a breed of domestic animal suited to some particular 
purpose is secured every effort is made to keep the breed 
pure by avoiding crossing with another breed, and record 
books are kept in which the history of registered animals 
of the different breeds is continued from generation to 
generation. 

Crossing. Sometimes, however, selection alone will not 
give us all that we want in a domestic animal. Sometimes 
crossing is necessary, and so we have some herds of Texas 
Herefords that are being crossed with the zebus, the 
humped cattle of India, because the hybrids are immune 
to the attacks of the tick that carries the germ of Texas 
fever. 



142 AGRICULTURE 

Crossing, or hybridization, is, for practical reasons, 
much more generally followed by plant breeders than by 
animal breeders, especially because plant hybrids can be 
propagated by budding, by grafting, by layering, by 
making cuttings. Animals are improved chiefly by selec- 
tion of the more desirable individuals for breeding pur- 
poses. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is variation in plants? Give examples of variation in 
cabbage and corn. 

2. How are plants improved by selection? Give examples. 

3. What is the best way of improving corn by selection? 

4. How can wheat be improved? 

5. What is a plant hybrid, and how is it obtained? What is the 
use of producing plant hybrids? Give examples of valuable plant 
hybrids. 

6. What was the origin of our domestic cattle? What was the 
origin of our different breeds of horses? 

7. How are pure breeds of stock obtained? Give examples of a 
pure breed. 

8. Show how the pure breed of Jersey cattle has varied since 
coming to America. 



CHAPTER XIV 



WEEDS 

Weeds are plants out of place. Even harmless or use- 
ful plants may sometimes become weeds. Blue grass is 
a weed in a flower garden. Wild carrots, garden mustard, 
chicory, and salsify are all garden 
vegetables which sometimes grow 
wild and become weeds. 

Classes of Weeds. Weeds may 
be divided into three general classes 
— annuals, biennials, and perennials. 
Annual weeds, such as pigweed, 
Jimson weed, wild lettuce, cockle- 
bur, and weedy grasses like crab 
grass and foxtail, may usually be 
killed by clean cultivation. Bien- 
nial weeds, such as wild carrot and 
chicory, form roots the first year 
and produce their flowers and seeds 
the second year and die. Cutting 
these plants off below the crown will 
generally kill them. They should 
also be mowed before they go to seed. If this is done, 
no more plants will be produced from them, because the 
roots will not live the third year. 

Perennial Weeds. Perennial weeds give the most 
trouble. These again may be classified according to their 
methods of propagation. Some kinds of perennials, which 
have a large taproot and crown, increase by forming new 

(143) 




A head of cheat. 



144 



AGRICULTURE 



ti 




crowns, so that a single plant will in a 
few years make a considerable patch of 
plants around itself. To this class be- 
long the dandelion and the buckhorn. 
Such plants also produce a great deal of 
seed. When land is covered with them 
the only remedy is to plow it up and 
put it into cultivation until the weeds 
and their seeds are killed. Fortunately 
such weeds as these do not have deep 
roots, and they are easily plowed under. 
The most dangerous weeds are those 
perennials which propagate by means 

either of hori- 
zontal under- 
ground stems, 
or of horizon- 
tal propagat- 
ing roots. 
Examples o f 
the first kind 
are Johnson 
grass and 
quack grass; 




Quack grass, a very troublesome and noxious weed. It propagates 
by means of underground stems which run horizontally through 
the soil. 

of the second, field bindweed, Canada thistle, and sow 
thistle. If it were possible to keep these weeds con- 
stantly cut below the surface so that not a leaf ever grew 
up to furnish food for the roots, they could finally be 
killed out, but this process is slow and expensive, since 
it requires many hours of hand labor. The best way 
of handling ground affected by these weeds in quantity 
is to plant the ground to some crop that will grow thick 
and partly smother the weeds. One method is to plant 
winter rye in the fall, plow it under in the spring, and follow 



WEEDS 



145 









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fciSGuTlJtoi^ 


ILJmmJS^mLM^^KmM] 



Bindweed in bloom. 



it with sorghum sown 

thick for hay; and to 

repeat the process until 

the weeds have been 

smothered. Where 

small patches of these 

perennial weeds are 

found starting in a field 

or garden they can be 

killed by the use of salt, 

which should be put on 

the ground at the rate 

of ten to fifteen 

tons to the acre. Of 

course, the ground will 

be made unfit for use 

for several years, but if the patches are small this will 
be less serious than to allow the 
weeds to spread. If salt is used, 
care should be taken to cover the 
ground about ten feet beyond what 
appears to be the outside edge of 
the weed patches, for the reason 
that many ^f these weeds spread 
very rapidly underground, and their 
roots or underground stems often 
grow far beyond what seems to be 
the edge of the patch above ground. 
The bindweed, which is the worst 
of all these weeds, and in fact one 
of the worst weeds in existence, is 
spreading in nearly every county in 
Kansas. It has been found that 
Prickly wild lettuce. laud Infcsted with the bindweed can 

10 











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m 


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^ 



146 



AGRICULTURE 




Russian thistle, a troublesome annual weed which gets uprooted and rolls 
over the ground, scattering its seeds. 



be cleared by 
fencing young 
hogs, t o the 
number of 
about twenty- 
five to the 
acre, upon 
the land thus 
infested. I f 
the hogs are 
given light 
feed and thus 
compelled t o 
eat the bind- 
weed to the ground and root after the underground parts 
of the plant, the bindweed can be killed out in a couple 
of seasons. Of course, this method would not be prac- 
ticable on a large scale. In general, the best method for 
killing the bindweed depends entirely upon circumstances — 
salt for small patches, hogs for somewhat larger patches, 
and smother crops for fields of considerable size. 

Barnyard Weeds. Weeds may again be classified 
according to the places in which they grow. There are 
weeds which are founii as a rule only around barnyards 
and in very rich, extremely fertile soils. Such weeds are 
the Jimson weed, the bull nettle or horse-bur, the velvet 
leaf, and the burdock. These weeds are all easily killed 
by hoeing and clean cultivation where they occur in 
fields, and by mowing before they go to seed where they 
occur elsewhere. 

Field and Garden Weeds. Field and garden weeds in- 
clude a long list of our most common annual weeds, such 
as the pigweeds, water hemp. Black-eyed Susan, the horse 
weed, the sunflower, and in the western part of the state 



WEEDS 



147 



the Russian thistle. Most of these have to be kept out 
by clean cultivation and hoeing. One of the weeds com- 
monly found in fields 
and tame grass mead- 
ows is cheat. 

Pasture Weeds. 
There are certain weeds 
most commonly known 
as pasture weeds. They 
generally appear in 
pastures which have 
been overstocked and in 
which the grass has 
been eaten down so 
closely that the weeds 
have an excellent oppor- 
tunity to grov/. Such 
weeds as pigweed, which 
have been referred to 
as barnyard weeds, are 
not usually found in 
pastures, because the 
ground is too dry. 
Among the most common pasture weeds are the wild ver- 
bena, the ironweed, and the bull thistle. These plants 
have very strong, tough roots, and are very difficult to 
eradicate. When found in the pasture they should be kept 
mowed to prevent their going to seed, and the land should 
be pastured lightly for two or three years until the grass 
is enabled to take the ground and drive the weeds out, 
which it will almost invariably do in time. The bull 
thistle is particularly difficult to eradicate because it 
grows from a fleshy tuberous root lying a couple of feet 
below the surface. If every thistle top is cut off below 




Buckhorn, or English plantain, a troublesome weed in 
pastures. 



148 



AGRICULTURE 



the surface as soon as it ap- 
pears this weed may, however, 
be eradicated. 

Occasionally some of the 
native plants of the prairie 
become troublesome weeds. 
Among these are the western 
ragweed, a plant with, narrow 
leaves, woolly on its under 
side, and with long horizontal 
propagating roots; the western 
fog fruit, a plant with deeply 
growing propagating roots and 
very narrow, wedge-shaped, 
light green leaves; the wild 
fescue grass, which is a small 
annual prairie grass with 
sharp-pointed seed heads, and 
which in dry seasons becomes suii uustie, or pasture thistle, it grows 

from a tuber. The first year it makes a 
abundant on the western f«w leaves and develops the tuber. The sec- 
. . ond year it sends up a flower top, and sends 

prairies. out roots which form new tubers. 

There is no universal remedy for weeds. Each kind 
must be studied and fought by itself. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a weed? Give examples of different classes of weeds. 

2. What is a perennial weed? Give examples of noxious peren- 
nial weeds. Why are they the most dangerous? 

3. How can noxious perennial weeds be eradicated? 

4. What do we mean by barnyard weeds? Give examples. 

5. What is meant by field and garden weeds? Give examples. 

6. What are examples of pasture weeds? How do weeds get 
into pastures? 

7. How can weeds be kept out of pastures? 




CHAPTER XV 

SOIL FORMATION 

The soil is the surface covering of the earth. It is com- 
posed of small pieces of rock and small particles of partly 
decayed plant material. A mass of material made up of 
rock particles alone would not be soil, but if this mass of 
rock particles were supplied with partly decayed plant 
material, moisture, and small organisms called bacteria, 
it would be capable of supporting plant growth, and 
would be a soil. 

The rock particles make up the body, or mass, of the 
soil, and are called mineral matter. The plant material 
found in the soil is called organic matter. Organic mat- 
ter is necessary in order that the soil may hold moisture, 
and is necessary also for supplying food for the bacteria 
that are essential to the growth of plants. 

Soil and Subsoil. A distinction is usually made be- 
tween the top or surface soil, which is commonly spoken 
of as the soil, and the subsoil, that portion immediately 
below the soil. The soil usually extends to the depth that 
the farmer plows, or a little farther, and is commonly 
darker in color and more open and porous than the sub- 
soil. The more open condition of the soil is often due to 
the fact that it contains more organic matter than the 
subsoil, and also to the fact that many of the fine particles 
of the soil have been carried into the subsoil by water pass- 
ing through the top layer. 

In eastern Kansas, where the rainfall is heavy, the sub- 
soil is usually less productive than the' soil, because the 

(149) 



150 



AGRICULTURE 



air has not come into contact with the lower layers of the 
soil sufficiently to liberate the plant foods. Deep plow- 
ing, which throws up a large amount of the subsoil at one 
time, usually results in decreased yields until the subsoil 
material becomes aired and mixed with organic matter. 

In the drier parts of the state the soil and the subsoil 
may be thoroughly mixed without injurious results. A 
good subsoil is one that is deep and loose enough to hold 
large amounts of moisture, and to allow the roots of plants 
to penetrate to great depths. If the subsoil is composed 




An ideal subsoil. This soil is deep and will furnish ample room for the deepest-rooted plants. 
It will also store an abundance of pUut food and moisture. 

of very fine particles it is usually dense and compact, and 
will not permit ready entrance of the roots of plants. If, 
on the other hand, the subsoil is very open or is underlain 
by a bed of sand or gravel it will not hold sufficient mois- 
ture for the best growth of crops. 

SOIL FORMATION 

The earth is supposed to have been at one time a solid 
crust of rock. The soil was formed from this crust by the 



SOIL FORMATION 



151 



action of water, air, ice, heat, cold, plants, and animals. 
These agencies have been constantly at work breaking up 
and wearing away the rock mass and carrying the finer 
material thus formed from mountains and hills into the 
valleys. 

The Action of Water. Water acts upon rocks in two 
ways. First, it grinds up the rock; this process is called 
mechanical action. Second, it dissolves parts of the rock; 
this process is called chemical action. The mechanical 
action of water in forming soil takes place along every 



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"' ^^'^':^ ^^f^ ^^m 



A poor subsoil. The layer of gravel just below the surface soil prevents plant roots from growing down- 
ward, contains very little plant food, and allows the soil water to flow away. 

stream. As water falls upon rocks and flows over them 
it grinds away the rock mass and carries the small parti- 
cles of soil thus formed, down the stream to lower levels. 
The chemical action of water in breaking up rock and 
forming soil is also great. Many of the particles which 
make up the rock are more or less soluble in water, and 
especially in water containing carbon dioxide. Limestone 
rocks dissolve very rapidly in this way. When water con- 



152 AGRICULTURE 

taining carbon dioxide comes into contact with limestone, 
or any rock which contains lime, the lime is dissolved and 
carried away by the water, leaving behind only the im- 
pure part of the rock, or the part that will not dissolve, 
to form soil. 

The Action of Air. Air, as well as water, is active in 
forming soil particles from rock. The wind, which is air 
in motion, beats against the surface of the rock, and grad- 
ually loosens the small particles and carries them away. 
When the wind works alone this process is very slow, but 
when the wind carries with it some sand particles and is 
moving very rapidly the cutting or grinding effect on any 
exposed rock is very noticeable. This grinding power of 
the wind carrying sand is so great that, along the sea- 
coast, window glass is often made opaque" during a single 
storm. 

You have often noticed that iron, when left in a damp 
place, rusts; and that if you rub your hand over the iron 
it will be covered with a brown iron stain. Iron rusts be- 
cause it has been exposed to the air and moisture. If a 
piece of iron is left so exposed long enough, it will rust 
entirely away. Just as iron rusts and becomes powdery 
when exposed to air and moisture, so portions of rock rust 
and become very fine. Some rocks which contain large 
quantities of iron may be entirely broken down into soil 
in this way. 

The Action of Ice. At one time the north part of 
North America was covered with a great sheet of ice. 
This ice sheet moved southward slowly, passing over hills, 
valleys, and streams. In the bottom of this mass of ice 
were embedded rocks and boulders of all sizes, which acted 
as teeth to tear up the surface of the earth and grind away 
the rocks. This process of tearing down hills and filling 



SOIL FORMATION 



153 



up valleys continued until the ice sheet moved so far south 
that the ice finally melted, and the material which it car- 
ried was deposited as soil. Soils formed in this way are 
known as glacial, or drift, soils. 

The Action of Heat and Cold. Practically all rocks 
contain some water, either in their make-up or in the 
cracks and crevices. When the water in the cracks and 
crevices of the rock freezes it exerts a tremendous pres- 
sure on the rock fragments and tends to force them apart. 
In this way fragm.ents are torn from the rock surface 
wherever any freezing takes place. Sudden changes in 
temperature also exert 




A rock that is being broken up to form soil, by the 
action of water, heat, and cold. 



a strong pressure 
which tends to break 
rocks apart. Rocks 
are made up of differ- 
ent kinds of particles, 
called minerals. The 
different minerals do 
not expand and con- 
tract at the same rate 
on heating and cool- 
ing. Thus, when rocks become warm during the day, 
their different minerals expand at different rates, break- 
ing the cementing material that holds the minerals 
together. In time, a rock at the surface of the soil may 
crumble down from this action. 

The Action of Plants and Animals. Plants and an- 
imals work in various ways in forming soil from rock. 
The roots of plants, large and small, enter the small crev- 
ices in the rock, and force the rock apart, making the 
openings larger. Small plants, such as mosses, attach 
themselves to the surfaces of rocl^, where they grow and 



154 



AGRICULTURE 



decay. These plants give off weak acids that dissolve the 
rock and loosen the rock particles. In this way little par- 
ticles of mineral matter are added to the organic matter 
which is formed when the plants decay. Thus a soil is 
formed. This process is gradually continued until there 
is sufficient soil to maintain other plant life. 

Burrowing animals, such as gophers, and worms, such 
as earthworms, also help to form the soil. They grind 
up and make finer the particles which have been formed 
by other means. They also make it possible, by their 
burrowing, for air and water to enter the soil and thereby 
to come into contact with the rocks below the surface. 

Soils Formed from Plants. While most soils are 
formed principally from mineral matter, or rock material, 
there are in many places large areas of soils which have 




A soil that remained where it was formed, Observe the ledge of rook below the soil. It was from 
similar rock that the soil above was formed. 

been formed almost entirely from the decay of vegetation. 
Such soils are usually formed around shallow lakes, where 
there is a rank growth of vegetation which decays slowly 



SOIL FORMATION 155 

on account of the water, and which therefore gradually 
fills the lake, working inward from all sides. Soils formed 
from plant life or organic matter in this way are known as 
cumulose soils. 

The Transportation of Soils. After the soil has been 
formed from rock and decaying organic matter, it may 
remain where it was formed, or it may be carried to some 
other location. Large bodies of the upland soils of central, 
eastern, and southeastern Kansas were formed in the 
places where they now exist. The soils in other parts of 
the state have been moved from the place of formation 
by water, wind, or ice. 

Soils Formed by Water. The soils that occur along 
rivers and creeks and are commonly known as bottom- 
land soils have been carried to their present location from 
the highlands adjacent to the streams. In time of flood 
a stream carries large amounts of soil material of various 
sizes. These particles of soil are deposited along the valley 
of the stream. The larger, heavier particles will be de- 
posited first, near the stream, while the finer particles will 
settle out and be deposited where the water is running 
slowly, farther from the channel of the stream. 

Soils that are transported in this way and redeposited 
are usually very fertile and form the most productive soils 
of the country. They are called alluvial soils. 

Soils Formed by Wind. Soils that have been carried 
and deposited by wind are called loessial soils. Loessial 
soils are common in western and northwestern Kansas. 
The hard winds blowing from the west carried dust parti- 
cles from the Rocky Mountains into western Kansas. As 
the winds slackened in velocity, the dust particles settled 
and formed the soil. The soils in western Kansas that 
have been formed in this way vary from a few inches to 



156 AGRICULTURE 

many feet in depth. They usually contain large quanti- 
ties of plant food, and are, therefore, very productive 
when supplied with sufficient moisture. 

Soils Formed by Ice. Soils formed by ice are known 
as glacial soils. Such soils are found in the northeastern 
part of Kansas. The soils of that part of the state were 
brought from regions farther north by an immense glacier 
that covered northeastern Kansas as far south as the Kan- 
sas river and as far west as the Big Blue river. When this 
big glacier melted, the soil that it had carried from the 
north was deposited over this part of the state. 

Glacial soils vary in depth as much as those that have 
been transported by wind. Where they are deep they 



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A glacial soil. The large rocks are boulders, commonly found in soils formed by glaciers. 

are fertile. They comprise some of the best soils of the 
state. Large stones, called boulders, are usually found in 
glacial soils. 

TYPES OF SOILS 

The Soil Mass. The soil mass, as it occurs in the field, 
is made up of granules, or tiny lumps. These granules 
consist of large numbers of small soil particles of different 
sizes held together by moisture or some weak cementing 
material. Soil particles vary in size from those too small 



SOIL FORMATION 157 

to be seen by the naked eye to those that are commonly 
called stones or gravel. The soil particles are grouped, 
according to size, into classes named as follows: 

1. Stones — particles of soil so large that they interfere 

with tillage operations. 

2. Gravel — particles smaller than stones, but larger 

than ^/'25 of an inch in diameter. 

3. Coarse sand — particles from V25 to ^/m of an inch in 

diameter. 

4. Medium sand— particles from V50 to '^/m of an inch 

in diameter. 

5. Fine sand — particles from ^/wo to V200 of an inch in 

diameter. 

6. Very fine sand— particles from V200 to V^to of an inch 

in diameter. 

7. Silt — particles from \/'m to ^Aooo of an inch in diam- 

eter. 

8. Clay — particles from Vsooo to Vsao.ooo of an inch in 

diameter. 

These different-sized particles of soil are spoken of as 
soil constituents. While all soils contain most of the con- 
stituents, very few soils contain these constituents in the 
same amounts. Some of the most fertile soils do not con- 
tain stones or gravel, yet all fertile soils contain sand, 
silt, and clay. One soil may have the sand particles pre- 
dominating, another the silt particles, and a third the 
clay particles. Thus different types of farm soils are 
formed as the amounts of these different soil constituents 
vary. 

Sandy Soils. Sandy soils are made up chiefly of the 
soil constituents of the sand size. If coarse sand pre- 
dominates, the soil is called a coarse sandy loam. If the 
fine sand constituents predominate, the soil is called a 
fine sandy soil. The coarse sandy soils are usually poor 
in plant food, and dry out very quickly. As a rule, the 
finer the sand that composes the soil the more valuable 



158 



AGRICULTURE 




:^>^-'':wtV 






the soil. Sandy soils are often very valuable for producing 
truck crops, like radishes, lettuce, and sweet potatoes. 
Sandy soils occur in Kansas along the Arkansas and 
Kansas rivers and on the uplands of the south central 
part of the state. 

Clay Soils. Soils that contain more than thirty-five 
per cent of clay and more than sixty per cent of silt and 
clay are called clay soils. If the amount of silt and clay 
exceeds eighty or ninety per cent the soil is worthless for 

farming, because it is 
too stiff and heavy, 
and difficult to plow 
and work. The clay 
soils are usually very 
rich in plant food. 
When wet, they are 
sticky. When dry, 
they are hard, crack 
badly, and are lumpy. 
They are difficult to 
till. They must not 
be worked when too 
wet, else they will 
bake badly; and 
they can not be 
worked when too dry 
because they are so 
hard. These un- 
desirable qualities of clay soils are due to the small 
amount of sand found in them. Sometimes manure or 
other forms of organic matter worked into these soils 
will take the place of sand and make them more mellow. 
The very heavy clay soils grow grass well and should be 
used for hay as much of the time as possible. The 



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*v»r^^ ^ 






^-^^":'\4. 



«i^«'^ ^ 



A clay soil badly crusted. Soils of this type are very 
difficult to cultivate. 



SOIL FORMATION • 159 

other crops that do best upon clay soils are wheat, 
oats, and barley, and some of the fruit trees, such as 
apple, pear, and plum trees. Alfalfa also does well upon 
clay soil wherever the plant can be started. 

Loam Soils. A loam soil is made up of about one-half 
sand of the various grades, with the other half silt and 
clay. In physical nature it is half way between the sandy 
soil and the clay soil, and combines the best characters of 
both. It is easy to cultivate, does not bake or become 
cloddy if properly worked, and is usually rich in plant food. 

There are different types of loam soils. Sandy loam 
contains more sand than loam, and more silt and clay than 
the sandy soil. Sandy loam is very common in the river 
bottoms of eastern Kansas. It is excellent for alfalfa and 
is well adapted to corn. Silt loam soil contains more silt 
and less sand and clay than the true loam. Silt loam is a 
very common type of soil on the uplands in all parts of 
Kansas. Loam and silt loam are the most desirable corn 
soils. Silt loam is also well adapted to the production of 
alfalfa, wheat, oats, and barley. Clay loam is inter- 
mediate between clay and loam soil. It contains more 
clay and less sand than does loam. Like clay soil, it is 
worked with difficulty, and must be handled carefully. 
It is fair corn soil, and is well adapted to wheat, hay and 
grass. Gravelly loam is a loam soil containing a large 
amount of gravel. This soil is not common in Kansas, 
occurring only in small areas. Stony loam is a loam soil 
containing a large number of stones. This type occurs in 
Kansas merely in small areas, and is useful only as pasture 
land. 

THE SOILS OF KANSAS. 

The soil map on the adjacent page shows the general 
location and extent of the six great divisions of Kansas 



160 AGRICULTURE 

soils. No sharp lines of demarcation can be drawn be- 
tween any two of these soils. 

In the extreme northeastern corner of the state, extend- 
ing south to the Kansas river and west almost to the Blue 
river, is a body of soil known as glacial, because it was 
carried there and left by the glacier which came down 
from the north. 

The large body of soil covering the northwestern portion 
of the state is known as loessial, or wind formed, soil. 
The soils of that area were carried from other regions by 
the wind and deposited there. 

The area of soils in the southwestern part of the state 
is residual, being formed from the unconsolidated material 
which was at one time carried there by water from the 
country farther west. 

Just south of the Arkansas river in the western part of 
the state is what is known as the "dune sand" area. The 
sands of this area were at one time moved from plact~ to 
place by the wind. 

The soils in the southeastern part of the state are re- 
sidual in origin, and have been formed largely from the 
weathering of sandstone and shale. 

The broad body of soils found chiefly in the central 
part of the state, but extending from the northern to the 
southern edge, and from the central to the eastern edge of 
the state, is residual in origin. It has been formed largely 
from the weathering of limestone, sandstone, and shale. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Of what is the soil composed? How may its composition vary? 

2. How does the soil differ from the subsoil? What constitutes 
a good subsoil? 

3. Why is the subsoil in eastern Kansas less productive than the 
soil? 



SOIL FORMATION 161 

4. Name all the agencies which have a part in soil formation. 
Tell what each does, and how it does its work. 

5. How are cumulose soils formed? How have glacial soils been 
formed? 

6. In what ways may soil be transported? 

7. Of what is the soil mass composed? 

8. What are the disadvantages of a sandy soil? What are the 
disadvantages of a clay soil? Contrast the disadvantages of clay 
soils with those of sandy soils. 

9. Why is a loam soil desirable? To what crops is it adapted? 



11 



CHAPTER XVI 

SOIL WATER 

There can be no plant growth without water. One of 
the most important uses of the soil is to act as a storehouse 
for water until it is needed by the plants. It has been 
estimated that a thousand pounds of green corn contains 
about eight hundred pounds of water; that is, that four- 
fifths of the corn plant is water. It can, therefore, safely 
be said that the most important food that the plant takes 
from the soil is water. The soil water is important, not 
only because it is the chief plant food, but because it acts 
as a carrier of all other plant foods that come from the 
soil. The soil itself is not the original source of this water; 
the water comes from the atmosphere as rain. Water 
which comes to the soil as rain exists in the soil chiefly in 
two forms, free water and film water. 

Free Water. Free water is that which flows under the 
influence of gravity. It is also called ground water, bottom 
water, or standing water. Well-drained soils contain free 
water only for a short time after heavy rains; it either 
flows off the surface of the ground or sinks downward into 
the lower soil. The downward movement of the water 
through the soil is called percolation. 

Free water is not directly useful to the roots of plants, 
except those which naturally inhabit swamps, like rice, 
willow trees, and pond lilies. If free water stands in the 
soil very long, most farm crops will be drowned, for the 
roots of such plants must have air, and this water excludes 

(162) 



SOIL WATER 163 

the soil air. Free water is indii'ectly useful in supplying 
film water. 

Soils that are composed of large particles, like sand, 
have large openings between the soil grains. Through 
these soils water percolates very rapidly, and not enough 
film water is supplied. Soils composed of small particles, 
like clay, have very small openings between the soil 
particles. Through soils of this kind water percolates 
very slowly — so slowly that plants are sometimes drowned. 
Soils with medium-sized particles, like loam, permit water 
to percolate fast enough to prevent the plant from drown- 
ing, and yet slowly enough to supply an abundance of film 
water. 

If plant material, like manure, is added to a sandy soil, 
the large openings between the soil particles will be partly 
closed, water will percolate less rapidly, and the sandy soil 
will become more like loam. If the same kind of material 
is added to a clay soil, the small particles will be forced 
farther apart, the openings will be made larger, and the 
claj'' soil will be improved. Water that percolates into the 
soil may be brought back for the use of the plant. It is 
therefore desirable to have fine-grained soils, like clays 
and loams, loose, so that they will absorb as much of the 
rainfall as possible. 

Film Water. Water is also present in the soil as film 
water. This water is called film water because it sur- 
rounds each soil particle with a thin film. When all the 
free water has percolated through the soil after a rain, 
each soil particle is surrounded by film water. It is this 
water surrounding the soil particles that the plants use 
in their growth. The amount of film water that can cling 
to one soil particle is very small, but the amount of water 
that can cling to all the soil particles is very large. A good 
farm soil may sometimes hold more than one-half its 



164 



AGRICULTURE 



weight of film water. The amount of this water the soil 
can hold depends upon the size of the soil particles. Those 
soils having the smallest particles, such as clay, hold the 
most film water. 

Film water is called also capillary water. It rises in 
the soil in the same way that oil rises in a lamp wick. If 
the ends of small glass tubes are immersed in water, 
water will rise on the inside of the tubes. The smaller the 
bore of the tubes the higher the water will rise. Capillary 
water rises in the same way in the soil. The smaller the 
soil particles the smaller will be the soil capillary tubes, 
and consequently the higher the water will be raised in the 
soil. Therefore, fine-grained soil will raise water to a 
greater height than will coarse-grained soil. Free water 
that percolates into the soil is brought back for the use of 
plants by the action of the force called capillarity. There- 
fore, the greater the quantity of water that is stored in the 

subsoil, the 
greater is the 
amount that 
may be 
brought b y 
c a p i 11 a rity 
into the soil 
for the use 
of growing 
plants. 

Water 
moves by cap- 
illarity from 

a wetter to a drier soil. If water is evaporating from 
the surface of a soil, additional water will be brought 
from the lower soil to replace it. In this way it is possi- 
ble for soils to dry out to a great depth. If one is to save 




Soils when cracked lose moisture rapidly. A soil should be cultivated to 
prevent this loss of moisture. 



SOIL WATER 



165 



the water for the use of crops, one must prevent evapo- 
ration from the surface soils. Evaporation can be greatly 
checked by covering the soil with some material through 
which water passes slowly. 

Soil Mulches. A material placed upon the soil ta pre- 
vent evaporation is called a mulch. There are two kinds 
of mulches, foreign mulches, and natural, or soil, mulches. 




A good soil mulch on a corn field. Very little water is lost by evaporation from such a field. 

Stones, sand, sawdust, and straw scattered over the sur- 
face of the soil, form good mulches and greatly check 
evaporation. These mulches can be used only in a limited 
way. They are foreign mulches. 

A soil mulch consists of a layer of soil which has been 
loosened by cultivation, and which, because of its loose, 
open structure, dries out quickly and prevents evaporation. 



166 



AGRICULTURE 



When a soil is stirred after a rain, evaporation will first 
be increased, but as the loose soil becomes dry it acts as 
a mulch to prevent further evaporation. It is not best to 
have the mulch broken up so fine that it forms a dust, for 
moisture will rise through this more rapidly than through 
a mulch composed of small lumps, or granules. A dust 
mulch is also much more likely to blow than a mulch com- 
posed of small lumps. If best results are to be obtained 
it is necessary to cultivate as soon as possible after a heavy, 
packing rain, in order that the crust, which allows moisture 
to escape, may be broken up. The depth to which the 
soil should be cultivated for this purpose depends upon 
whether the soil is composed of fine or of coarse particles. 
Cultivating three inches, however, usually produces an 
effective mulch. 




A listed field. On a field oi this character, rain soaks into the soil rapidly. 

Increasing the Water-holding Capacity. Tillage may 
be beneficial in increasing the water-holding capacity of 
a soil, as well as in preventing loss by evaporation. Plow- 
ing fine-grained soils, like clay or loam, so as to leave the 
surface soil rough and uneven, helps to prevent surface 
run-off when heavy rains fall. If the soil is plowed early 



SOIL WATER 



167 



and deep the opportunities for it to absorb and hold 
moisture are increased, because, the larger the volume of 
soil loosened and made open, the more water it will be 
capable of holding. 

Dry Farming. Over a large area of western Kansas the 
rainfall is not sufficient for the production of a good crop 
each year under the usual methods of cultivation. Where 
conditions of this kind prevail, dry farming is practiced. 
Dry farming is not an attempt to grow crops without 
water, but consists in conserving water so that crops may 
be grown with the minimum amount of rainfall. By this 




Injury from blowing due to improper handling; of the soil. 

system of farming, as much as possible of the water that 
falls as rain is stored in the soil for the use of plants during 
their growth. To store water thus, it is necessary to 
have a deep subsoil that is open enough to allow the 
entrance of water, and at the same time composed of fine 
grains and compact enough to hold a large amount of 
moisture and have considerable capillary power. The sur- 



168 AGRICULTURE 

face soil should be loose and open, and the ground should 
be cultivated to prevent the growth of weeds. 

Where blowing occurs the ground must be kept rough, 
and must be cultivated only when moist, and then 
no more than is necessary to kill the weeds. Perhaps 
the best system is to list the land in the fall and 
allow it to remain in a rough condition during the winter 
months, and in the spring to cultivate only with imple- 
ments that leave the ground in a rough condition. The 
spring-tooth harrow, the shovel cultivator, and the alfalfa 
renovator are good implements for this purpose. If the 
soil is cultivated with the smoothing harrow and so 
disked as to leave the surface smooth, blowing will result. 

When the rainfall is very light, ground is sometimes 
summer-fallowed for one year out of three or four, for the 
purpose of storing moisture in the soil. Summer-fallowing 
consists in cultivating a field throughly one entire season 
without a crop and without letting the weeds grow. When 
this plan is followed, the rainfall of one year is stored in 
the soil and held until the next year, when it aids the 
rainfall of that year in growing a crop. If the moisture is 
properly cared for, it is necessary to cultivate the field 
often enough during the fallow year — the year in which 
no crop is grown — to keep weeds from making much 
growth, for weeds use large amounts of moisture and soon 
deplete the soil of its supply. The cultivation of the soil 
during the fallov/ season involves some extra expense, but 
there is no expense for seed and harvest in the fallow year, 
and there is often a larger net profit in growing two good 
crops every three years than in growing a small crop every 

y^^^- SOIL EROSION 

Soil erosion is the washing away of the surface soil. In 
northeastern Kansas, where the rainfall is heavy and the 



SOIL WATER 



169 



soil loamy and rolling, much difficulty is experienced in 
keeping the surface soil in cultivated fields from washing 
away. The surface soil contains the most plant food and 
is therefore the richest part of the soil. When washed 
away, it leaves behind only the poorer subsoil. Not only 
does erosion carry away plant food, but it also causes 
deep ravines in the field, which make cultivation very 
difficult. 

When the country was all in grass, the amount of erosion 




Farm land that is rapidly being destroyed by washing. 



that took place was very small in comparison with that 
which has taken place since the ground was plowed. As 
the land was broken up by the plow, the surface covering 
of leaves, grass, and twigs, which held large amounts of 
moisture as it fell in the form of rain, and which gave it 
up slowly to the soil, was destroyed. The roots of grasses, 
weeds, and trees, so numerous in the soil, aided greatly in 
holding the soil particles together. The presence of large 



SOIL WATER 171 

amounts of organic matter in the soil tends to prevent 
erosion, because such matter holds large amounts of 
water, thus lessening the surface run-off, and also it 
binds together the soil particles. When the farmer plants 
most of his cultivated land to corn each year, the organic 
matter in the soil soon decays and the soil washes much 
more easily. 

The Prevention of Erosion. Since erosion is caused by 
the water's carrying off the surface of the ground, any- 
thing that will lessen the surface run-off will lessen erosion. 
Adding organic matter to the soil and deep plowing are 
both beneficial on ground that must be cultivated, but the 
best method of preventing erosion is to keep the more 
rolling fields seeded to alfalfa or some grass. 

If it is desirable to cultivate a field which has consider- 
able slope and a tendency to wash, the land should be 
plowed or listed with the contour of the field, and the 
crop planted in the same way. This system of plowing is 
known as contour plowing. The furrows, in this case, 
form a series of small terraces in the field, and thus aid 
greatly in the prevention of erosion. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are the amount and the kind of water in the soil of so 
much importance to the farmer? 

2. In what forms does water exist in the soil? 

3. Is free water useful in the soil? How? 

4. How may the water-holding capacity of a sandy soil be in- 
creased? 

5. How do coarse-grained and fine-grained soils differ in water- 
holding capacity? Of what importance is this to the farmer? 

6. How may moisture be lost from the soil? When may this loss 
take place most rapidly? 

7. What is a soil mulch? What is its value? 



172 AGRICULTURE 

8. What effect has tillage on water-holding capacity? When 
may tillage be used to greatest advantage in controlling soil moisture? 

9. In summer-fallowing, why should the land be left in a rough 
condition over winter? 

10. How may soil erosion be prevented? 



CHAPTER XVII 
SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

The soil must be fertile and rich if the farmer is also to 
be rich and happy. On a rich soil a farmer can grow big 
crops of corn, wheat, and alfalfa. Where large crops are 
grown there is plenty of feed for live stock of all kinds. 
On a poor soil it is impossible to grow good crops, and 
without good crops the farmer can not grow the best live 
stock. It is necessary, therefore, if the farmer is to be 
prosperous, for him always to keep his soil rich and pro- 
ductive. A soil will not remain rich if care is not taken to 
keep up its fertility. We have seen how organic matter 
is lost from the soil; this must be supplied, a little each 
year, or the soil will become poorer. A fertile soil also 
contains plant food. 

There are a number of kinds of food necessary to the 
growth of the plant. Three of these plant foods, nitrogen, 
phosphorus, and potassium, sometimes become used up by 
too many years' cropping of the same land. Unless the 
deficiency is supplied, the soil becomes poor and unpro- 
ductive. There are three ways of adding plant food: 
(1) growing a leguminous crop that will secure nitrogen 
from the air; (2) applying commercial fertilizer; and (3) 
applying barnyard manure to the soil. 

Leguminous Crops. Leguminous crops, as has been 
pointed out, have the power to secure nitrogen from the air. 
Three-fourths of the air is made up of nitrogen, so that 
there is plenty for these crops to use. The most common 

(173) 



174 AGRICULTURE 

leguminous plants are alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, soy beans, 
beans, and peas. Leguminous plants are able to use the 
nitrogen of the air because they have living with them, in 
nodules on their roots, friendly bacteria. 

The bacteria first take the nitrogen from the air and 
then give it to the plant. These bacteria in return must 
have carbon for their growth. They are not green, neither 
do they grow in the sunshine; therefore, they can not take 
the carbon from the air as does a plant. But the legume 
has green leaves and can use the carbon of the air, and it 
supplies the bacteria with its carbon. Thus these two 
friends, the legume and the bacteria, live together, each 
doing a work that the other can not do. 

Most soils contain these useful bacteria. Some soils 
may not contain them, in which event the bacteria must 
be introduced. The best way of inoculating with bacteria 
is to gather soil from a field where the legume to be sown 
has been successfully grown, and to spread the soil at the 
rate of two or three bushels upon each acre to be inoculated. 

How Legumes Help Other Crops. These friendly 
bacteria live only upon the roots of leguminous plants. 
No other plants have nodules on their roots. Therefore, 
leguminous plants are the only plants that can use the 
nitrogen of the air. Corn, wheat, oats, and kafir must 
obtain all their nitrogen from the soil. When alfalfa, cow- 
peas, clover, or any other legume has been grown upon a 
field, there is left in the soil some of the nitrogen that the 
plant took from the air. This is especially the case if the 
crop is pastured or is plowed under for green manure. 
If com or wheat is then planted on the field where the 
legume has been grown, the crop is greatly benefited by 
the nitrogen left in the soil by the leguminous plant. In 
this way a farmer may place in the soil nitrogen from the 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 175 

air for the use of crops like corn or wheat, which are 
dependent upon the soil for their nitrogen. 

Commercial Fertilizers. A commercial fertilizer is a 
material sold for the purpose of supplying plant food to 
the soil. When a commercial fertilizer supplies all three 
of the important kinds of plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus, 
and potassium, it is called a complete fertilizer. Large 
amounts of commercial fertilizers are used by farmers in 
Europe, especially in Germany, France and England. In 
the United States, commercial fertilizers are used in the 
southern and the eastern states, where the land has been 
cropped for a great many years, but in the western states, 
like Kansas, where the ground has not been cropped so 
long, fertilizers are not extensively used. As time goes on 
and as more and more plant food is removed from the soil, 
it will become necessary to use fertilizer in order to pro- 
duce profitable crops. While commercial fertilizers supply 
plant food to the soil, they do not furnish much organic 
matter. We have seen that organic matter, as well as 
plant food, must be supplied if the soil is to remain fertile. 
For this reason, a farmer can not expect to maintain the 
fertility of his soil by using commercial fertilizers alone. 
They should be used, for best results, on soil which is 
occasionally dressed with barnyard manure or on which a 
crop is plowed under occasionally to supply organic 
matter. 

Barnyard Manure. Barnyard manure is the most im- 
portant of all kinds of plant food, and also adds organic 
matter to the soil. It is also the cheapest source of plant 
food. The farmer who feeds all the crops grown on his 
farm to live stock and carefully saves and returns the 
manure to his fields, will not find it necessary to buy much 



176 



AGRICULTURE 




Burnyard manure that has accumulated for years. It has lost much 
of its plant food. It should have been spread on the fields as fast as it 
was made. 



commercial fertilizer. The average farmer who is feeding 
live stock on his farm does not carefully save and use the 
manure. 

It has been 
estimated that 
there is pro- 
duced annu- 
ally in the 
United States 
manure c o n - 
taining plant 
food valued at 
more than two 
billion dollars, 
and that one- 
third, or more than seven hundred million dollars' worth, 
of this plant food is lost by careless handling. Loss of 
plant food from manure may occur in several ways. 

The Loss of Manure Value. Manure is made up of both 
solid and liquid matter. The latter is the more valuable 
because it contains more plant food, and also because 
the plant food which it contains is soluble in water 
and readily available for the use of plants. If care is not 
used in handling the manure, this valuable liquid material 
will flow away and be lost. This loss may be prevented 
by using sufficient bedding to absorb all the liquid portion 
of the manure. Manure that is left in the feed lot over 
summer, or that is piled in the open and left exposed to the 
weather, loses large amounts of plant food. Rain carries 
away in solution enormous quantities. This loss may be 
largely overcome by feeding the cattle on the cultivated 
land in the winter when the ground is dry, by cleaning 
out the feed yards early in the spring, and by piling manure 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 177 

under cover when it must be stored, and hauling it to the 
field as soon as possible. 

Barnyard manure that has been exposed to the weather 
for a period of six months has lost one-half of its plant 
food, and only the more slowly available plant food re- 
mains. 

The Application of Barnyard Manure. If the best 
results are to be obtained from barnyard manure, it should 
be hauled to the field as frequently as possible and spread 
over the surface of the soil evenly. It should not be placed 
in small piles and then scattered later, because it will lose 
a part of its value while in the piles, and the spots where 
the heaps were placed will receive an excessive amount of 
plant food. 

Manure that is applied as a surface dressing to wheat, 
alfalfa, or pasture lands at the rate of from five to ten tons 




The ^^eId from one-tenth oi an acre of alfalfa, first cutting. 1. Unfertilized. 2. Fertilized with 
five tons of manure to the acre annually. 3. Fertilized with two and one-half tons of manure annu- 
ally. 4. Fertilized with two and one-half tons of manure and three hundred and eighty pounds of 
rock phosphate annually. 5. Unfertilized. 

an acre will cause, under most conditions, a good increase 
in yield. Manure should not be plowed under, especially 
in western Kansas. When a heavy dressing of manure is 



178 



AGRICULTURE 



plowed under, the soil is left so loose and open that crops 
suffer severely from drouth. 

HUMUS 

From the definition of the word "soil" we learned that 
soil is composed of rock material and plant material. 
We have seen how the 
rocks of the earth's 
crust have been broken 
down and transported 
from one place to an- 
other to aid in the 
formation of the soil. 
The plant material in 
the soil is usually spoken 
of as the organic mat- 
ter. The organic mat- 
ter of the soil is slowly 
decaying. If it decays 
on the surface of the 
soil, it gradually disap- 
pears, leaving nothing 
but ashes, as though the 
organic matter had been 
burned. If it decays 
partly buried in the soil, 




Nature's way of adding organic matter to the soil: 
weeds growing on an uncultivated field. 



as when the organic matter is plowed under, it forms, in 
place of ashes, a black material called humus. Humus is, 
therefore, organic matter that has partly decayed in the ab- 
sence of air. It is in the form of humus that most of the 
organic matter of the soil is found . Humus is necessary for 
the growth of good crops. While plants may be grown un- 
der unnatural conditions in a soil that contains no humus, 
they can not be grown in the field in a soil of that kind, as 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 179 

they can not obtain enough food. Nitrogen, one of the 
most necessary foods of plants, is found in the soil chiefly 
in organic matter and humus. In decaying, humus also 
makes available to plants many of the other plant foods 
in the soil. Humus increases the water-holding power of 
the soil, because it acts like a sponge in absorbing water. 
It is for this reason very valuable in sandy soil. Soils that 
do not contain humus in fairly large amounts are worked 
with difficulty, are hard to plow and cultivate, and after 
rains bake and crust badly. 

How Humus is Lost. The organic matter and humus 
of the soil come from the vegetation that grows upon the 
earth. In nature, before man started to till the soil, there 
was always an abundance of humus, for all plants fell 
down and decayed where they had grown. When man 
started to till the soil, plants were no longer allowed to 
fall down and decay where they grew, but were removed 
from the fields. Man required the crops for food for him- 
self and his live stock. He not only removed the crops, 
but plowed and cultivated the soil. In the plowing and 
cultivation of the soil, air was allowed to enter freely, and 
the decay of organic matter was hastened. Thus the 
humus of the soil that nature constantly planned to main- 
tain has been reduced by man, first, in removing from the 
fields the crops, which, if left to decay, would have formed 
organic matter in the soil; secondly, in plowing and culti- 
vating, and thus hastening the decay of the humus pre- 
viously stored in the soil. 

How Humus May be Supplied. As more and more of 
the organic matter is destroyed by such methods of farm- 
ing as the growing of corn continuously and the removal 
of all fodder and straw from the farm, with the addition 
of no plant material, the soils become less and less pro- 
ductive. They become hard, are difficult to cultivate. 



180 AGRICULTURE 

bake when dry, wash badly, take in water slowly, and dry 
out quickly. Thus soils that were once productive and 
fertile become in time so poor that they no longer produce 
paying crops. 

Must man, in order to keep up the humus supply, go 
back to nature's plan and take nothing from the soil? He 
will do well to study nature's plan, and imitate it as far as 
possible. All organic matter produced upon the farm 
should be returned to the soil. Cornstalks supply organic 
matter. They should not be burned ; for in burning the 
organic matter is destroyed. They should be worked into 
the soil, where they will decay and form humus. Straw sup- 
plies organic matter, and therefore should not be burned. 




Old straw stacks rotting in the field. Straw supplies organic matter and should not be burned 
or allowed to rot in the stack, but should be spread and worked into the soil to form humus. 

All manure produced by live stock supplies organic 
matter, and should be saved, spread upon the field, 
and worked into the soil. If not enough material can be 
returned to the soil in this way to keep up the supply of 
organic matter, then crops should be grown and plowed 
under for the purpose of furnishing this material to the 
soil. Crops grown and plowed under for the purpose of 
furnishing organic matter to the soil are known as green 
manuring crops. 

Green Manuring. The best green manuring crops for 
Kansas are cowpeas, soy beans, sweet clover, and red 
clover. These are the best green manuring crops because 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 



181 



they add to the soil large amounts of nitrogen, as well as 
organic matter. Next in importance are rye, sorghums, 
and similar crops. These crops add large amounts of 
organic matter to the soil, but do not add nitrogen, and 
therefore are not so valuable as the others. 




Plowing cowpeas under — an excellent means of addin;^ organic matter to the soil. 

Lime and Liming. There are soils that fail to produce 
certain crops, not because the soil does not contain 
sufficient plant food, but because the soil is not in the 
proper condition to furnish a favorable home for the plant. 
Any material that is used to improve this condition is 
called a soil amendment. The chief soil amendment is 
lime. Soils that are deficient in lime do not furnish a 
suitable home for the bacteria that live on the roots of 
leguminous plants and aid in the fixation of nitrogen from 
the air. It is therefore necessary to lime such soils before 
leguminous crops like alfalfa, clover, and sweet clover 
can be grown. 

In the eastern and southeastern parts of Kansas there 



182 AGRICULTURE 

are large areas of soil that are deficient in lime and will 
not grow alfalfa or clover satisfactorily. Such soils 
soils should be limed. Lime may be used in one of two 
ways: it may be applied to the soil as finely ground lime- 
stone; or it may be applied as burned lime. 

If lime is applied as finely ground limestone, it should 
be used as a surface dressing and should be harrowed in. 
Because of its slow action, it should be applied a year be- 
fore results are expected from it. If, however, burned 
lime is to be used, it should be allowed to slake before 
being applied, and should then be spread as a surface 
dressing and should be harrowed in immediately. It is 
not advisable to apply lime and manure together, because 
the lime will set free from the manure nitrogen which will 
escape into the air. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what three ways may plant food be added to the soil? 

2. How do leguminous crops improve the soil? 

3. Is it advisable to apply nitrogen as a commercial fertilizer? 
Give reasons for your answer. 

4. Why is barnyard manure such a valuable plant food? When 
and how should it be applied? 

5. How should barnyard manure be cared for before it is applied? 

6. Why is humus so valuable in the soil? Give all the reasons 
you can. How may we tell when a soil lacks humus? 

7. How may humus be lost from the soil? How may it be added 
to the soil? 

8. To what soils should finely ground limestone be applied? 
Why? 



CHAPTER XVIII 

DRAINAGE 

Land drainage is the removal of excess water from the 
soil. In order that crops may be profitably grown, it is 
necessary that the soil shall not hold an excess of water. 
Too much water excludes air and hinders the activity of 
soil bacteria, and in other ways makes the soil unfit for 
plant gi-owth. Soils which are open and porous permit 
this excess water to flow away by gravity, and are drained 
naturally. Fine-grained soils with little vegetable matter 
and humus, or soils which have heavy, compact subsoils, 
do not permit this excess water to escape readily, and are 
therefore not naturally adapted to agriculture. In order 
to make these soils fit for plant growth, artificial drainage 
and proper tillage are necessary. Fortunately the excess 
water which hinders plant growth may be removed by the 
action of gravity without removing the capillary water 
necessary to plant growth. 

Lands Requiring Drainage. Lands which accumulate 
an excess of water and make dramage necessary are fre- 
quently found. Many fields have a part or all of their 
area made up of such soils. The most common conditions 
are: ponds and sloughs holding water for a great length 
of time; low spots and wet draws in cultivated fields 
which dry slowly after heavy rains; undulating fields 
having apparently good surface drainage, but having 
spots which are wet because of the retentive or uneven 
subsoils which cause the water to seep out near the bottom 

(183) 



184 AGRICULTURE 

of a slope; fields with porous or loamy surface soils, but 
with heavy, compact subsoils which prevent natural drain- 
age; low-lying swamp or marsh lands, or other areas with- 
out sufficient slope to remove the excess rainfall rapidly 
enough; stream valleys which are periodically overflowed 
because of the limited capacities of river and creek chan- 
nels, and which must be protected by some method of 
stream improvement. 

Many soils, on account of their steepness, erode or wash 
very badly. In such cases the problem is not how to per- 
mit the water to run away more quickly, but how to handle 
the water to prevent soil erosion. Soil erosion can not be 
prevented by artificial drainage alone. Proper tillage and 
rotation of crops are necessary for successful protection. 

Artificial land drainage is accomplished by two dis- 
tinct methods: surface drainage, and underdrainage. 

Surface Drainage. A large proportion of the rain which 
falls upon the earth's surface runs away over the surface of 
the ground. This water gathers in pools and small sur- 
face channels, and is finally collected into the creeks and 
rivers, which carry the surplus away to larger bodies of 
water. In cultivated fields, adequate surface ditches are 
necessary to carry away the excessive storm water. Nature 
provides at all times a means for removing this water, 
and if it is not permitted to escape by gravity through the 
surface channels, either it will gradually evaporate or it 
will percolate downward through the drainage pores in the 
soil. Evaporation is slow, and in most cases the character 
of the subsoil will not permit rapid or free percolation 
downward; therefore, the most important step in land 
drainage is to secure proper and adequate systems of 
ditches for surface drainage. It should be remembered, 
however, that surface drainage is valuable only so far as it 



DRAINAGE 



185 



is capable of removing water which would otherwise stand 
upon the surface of the ground. 

Drainage Ditches. Surface ditches are necessary in any 
large system of drainage, as a means of escape for the 
surface run-off and as 
an outlet for under- 
drains. It is very im- 
portant that these 
surface drains be lo- 
cated to give proper 
outlet for all the wet 
land, and at the same 
time be placed in such 
a manner as to prevent, 
as far as practicable, 
irregular-shaped fields. 
Generally speaking, sur- 
face drains are located 
to follow the general 
course of natural drain- 
age. 

Open Ditches. All ditches must have a certain 
amount of slope, or fall, in order to carry away the water. 
Frequently the amount of fall across a tract of land is not 
sufficient to provide adequate slope in the channel to per- 
mit the water to escape. In such cases, the lower end, or 
outlet, must be dug to a greater depth than the upper end. 
On the other hand, the slope of the land may be so great as 
to cause the water to run so rapidly that the soil is washed 
away. The channel should be so located as to prevent 
this, and if possible just enough fall should be se- 
cured to give sufficient velocity to carry away the silt 
and other debris that will naturally enter the channel. 




A type of mechanif'nl excavator used in making 
open ditches. 



186 



AGRICULTURE 



The character of the soil is an important factor in locating 
the ditch. 

Underdrainage. Underdrainage deals with the re- 
moval of excessive moisture from within the soil by 
means of covered drains. Although proper surf ace drain- 
age is the first step in farm drainage, it frequently be- 
comes necessary, even after surface drainage has been 
secured, to remove water from within the soil. To ac- 
complish this purpose underdrainage is necessary. Some 
soils are of such a texture that they do not require arti- 
ficial drainage, but few localities are so fortunate as to 
have soils that do not require more or less underdrainage. 
Kinds of Underdrains. An underdrain consists of an 
underground conduit or covered channel for the proper 

removal of excessive 

ground water. The 

first type of underdrain 

consisted of bundles of 

sticks placed in trenches, 

the whole being covered 

with earth. Following 

this crude method, bro- 
ken stone was placed in the trenches and the water was 
permitted to percolate through the open cavities. Later, 
flat stones were used to form underground channels. Tile 
drains were first introduced into the United States in 
the state of New York in 1838. Some of these drains 
are still in use. 

Tile Drains. Clay and cement are now extensively 
used for the manufacture of underdrains. The clay tile is 
used more generally than any other type. Factories for 
the manufacture of this product are well distributed 
throughout the Mississippi valley. Cement tile, made of 





Underdrain made with flat 
stoue. 



A modern tile drain. 



DRAINAGE 



187 



a mixture of cement and sand, is now extensively used. 
When properly constructed, cement tile is entirely satis- 
factory for drainage purposes. It is necessary that this 
underground pipe be made of first-quality material, other- 
wise the pieces are lia- 
ble to crumble and 
break. Clay and ce- 
ment tile are manufac- 
t u r e d in diameters 
varying from three 
inches to several feet. 
Tile drains less than 
twelve inches in diame- 
ter are usually con- 
structed in lengths of 
twelve inches. For 
drains of greater diame- 
ter the pieces of pipe are 
longer. 

It is very impor- 
tant that a good outlet 
Digging a drainage ditch. be sccured for tllc drain- 

age systems. In other words, there must be proper open 
ditches to permit the water from the tiles to escape readily. 
Tile drains are laid in trenches of varying depths, and always 
on a general line of descent, so that the water can have 
a free flow throughout the pipe line. The depth of 
trenches for receiving the tile varies with the character of 
the soil. Tile drains are usually placed at depths of not 
less than thirty inches, and in certain localities where the 
soil is deep, from three to four feet below the surface. 
In general, hardpan or very retentive soils require shal- 
low drainage, while loamy bottom lands require deeper 
drainage. 




188 



AGRICULTURE 



Tile Drainage Systems. A tile drainage system consists 
of a main, submains, and laterals. The main tile line 
serves as an outlet for all other drains, and should ordi- 
narily be located in the lowest part of the field and along 
the general course of natural drainage. Into the main 




Drainin<; a field. Notice depth and relation of ditohes, and distribution of tile. 

tile line the submains will empty, and these submains will 
in turn be the outlet for the lateral drains. The position 
of the submains depends largely upon the natural slope 
of the land. The laterals should be placed sufficiently 
close together to give complete and satisfactory drainage 
to the land. These intervals may vary from twenty-five 
to one hundred feet or more. Open and porous soils do not 
require frequent drainage. In such soils the tile are placed 



DRAINAGE 



189 



deep, and the lines fairly wide apart. In localities where 
the soil is very retentive, the tile lines are necessarily 
placed at less depth and at more frequent intervals. It is 
apparent that there is a relation between the depth and 
the spacing of tile lines, and that this relation is dependent 
directly upon the character of the soil to be drained. 

Size of Tile. The proper size of the underdrain depends 
upon the area of land to be drained and the slope, or fall, 
in the tile line. Drains should 
be installed to relieve the land 
of the excessive water during 
times of heavy rainfall. It is 
evident that the main tile line 
must be large enough to carry 
the combined water of all the 
drains which enter into it. 
Lateral tile lines should not 
be less than three inches in 
diameter, and usually it is 
economical to make the di- 
ameter at least four inches. 
The length of these lateral tile 
lines depends upon the topography of the land, but the 
minimum size of tile should not be used for a length much 
exceeding one thousand feet. It is very important to 
have the tile drains large enough, otherwise they will 
fail when most needed ; that is, during the wettest weather. 

Drainage Systems. Different systems of tile drainage 
are adapted to different fields. Where only wet depres- 
sions exist in the land, tile drains are placed in the lowest 
part of the wet area, and tile lines are run out into the wet 
side draws as required. This method is known as the 
natural system of drainage. 




Placing the tile in trenches. 



190 



AGRICULTURE 



Broad wet draws that are naturally depressed toward 
the center are drained by a main tile line through the 

center of the 
wet area and 
lateral lines 
run out from 
either side of 
the main line. 
This is known 
as the her- 
ringbone sys- 
tem. 

For large 
tracts of land 
where com- 
plete and 
thorough 
drainage is 
required, the 
'. ~" " ' ; '. system con- 

Plan of typical drainage system for a 160-acre fann. ^, Single-line sys- . 
tern of drainage. B, Cut-off drain to intercept seep water from the hill, slsts 01 iong 
C, Gridiron system of drainage for flat land. D, Herringbone system of n i t 

drainage. E, Drainage of a pond. F, Natural system of drainage; also parallel llnCS 
note the drain to the farm buildings. 

01 tile so ar- 
ranged that they will cover every portion of the field 
thoroughly, yet have a common outlet. Such a system 
of drainage is known as the gridiron system. 

Areas having a uniform slope with a good natural out- 
let are sometimes drained by single lines of tile laid through 
the field ; each tile line in reality is a system of drainage. 
This is known as the single-line system. 

Sloping hillsides are sometimes drained by tile lines 
placed at an angle with the greatest slope. This is known 
as the cross-the-slope system. 




DRAINAGE 191 

Undulating, or rolling, land that is subject to seepy or 
wet conditions at the base of the hill slopes is successfully 
drained by a tile line placed above the wet outcrop and 
deep enough to intercept the source of the seep water. 
Drains of this character are known as cut-off drains. 

Construction Methods. Farm drainage systems are 
usually constructed by the use of hand tools. The imple- 
ments usually needed are a tile spade, a shovel, a drain 
scoop, and a tile hook. Tile spades have blades ranging 
from sixteen to twenty inches in length. These are used to 
loosen and throw the dirt from the trenches. The shovel 
is used to remove the loose particles from the bottom of 
the trenches, and the drain scoop to shape the bottom to 
receive the tile. The tile hook is used to place the tile in 
position in the bottom of the trench. 

In localities where a large amount of tile drainage is 
necessary, power ditching machines may be used. These 
machines are run by steam or gasoline engines. In one 
operation they cut the ditch and shape the bottom of the 
trench ready to receive the tile. 

The Action of Tile Drainage. When a field is tile- 
drained the surplus water that falls percolates into the 
soil by passing through the drainage pores until it comes 
into contact with the underdrains. Here the action of 
•gravity causes the water to enter the tile through the 
cracks at the Joints. The quantity that enters through 
the sides of even the most porous tile is not worth consider- 
ing. With the most careful laying there is always ample 
room for the water to pass through the joints, and it is 
found that the longer the tiles are laid, the better defined 
the drainage pores in the soil become; consequently, the 
better the drainage. 

A drainage system that appears unsatisfactory when 
first installed may prove to be entirely adequate in the 



192 



AGRICULTURE 



course of time. Porous soils naturally respond most 
readily to underdrainage. The action of the tile drains in 
close, compact soils is hastened by deep plowing and sub- 
soiling, and the drainage properties of the soil may be im- 




A incthanical excavator u?e(l in the construction of tile drainage systems. 

proved by methods of farming which introduce vegetable 
matter into the soil. 

The Benefits of Drainage. While the principal purpose 
of the tile drain is to make wet land productive, it performs 
additional functions in making the land sweeter by proper 
aeration, warmer by preventing excessive evaporation, 
more productive by increasing the depth of soil, and more 
resistant to drouth by making more moisture available 
for plant life. Underdrainage is a valuable agent in the 
development of farm lands, in that the waste areas on the 
farms are decreased and thereby the value of the entire 
farm is increased. If underdrainage is employed fields 
can be made more regular in shape, and therefore can be 



DRAINAGE 193 

cultivated more easily. The removal of stagnant water 
lessens the danger of disease, while the dry earth about 
the farm buildings makes the farm home more sanitary. 
Localities which are properly drained have about them an 
air of freshness that is not possible in wet, low-lying dis- 
tricts. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the purpose of land drainage? 

2. Name six conditions of wet land which make drainage nec- 
essary. 

3. Under what two general divisions may land drainage be clas- 
sified? 

4. What do you understand by surface drainage? What is the 
purpose of the surface ditch? 

5. Give some general principles to be observed in the location 
of open ditches. 

6. What do you understand by underdrainage? How is artificial 
underdrainage accomplished? 

7. Of what materials are tile drains usually made? 

8. Give some of the important principles to observe in the loca- 
tion and construction of tile drains. 

9. Of what does a tile drainage system consist? Name and de- 
scribe five different systems. 

10. What tools are required to construct a tile drainage system 
by hand? 

11. W^hat is the minimum size of tile which should be used in a 
drainage system ? 

12. Describe the action of tile drains. 

13. Give five benefits derived from tile drainage. 



l;j 



CHAPTER XIX 

IRRIGATION 

The application of water to the soil by artificial methods 
for the production of crops is known as irrigation. The 
practice of irrigation is more ancient than history; the 
earliest known writers refer to this method of agriculture 
and give rules for the handling of water. India has more 
than 40,000,000 acres of irrigated land; Egypt has 6,000,- 
000 acres; the United States has between 15,000,000 and 
20,000,000 acres. Practically every nation in the world 
irrigates to some extent. The first irrigation practiced in 
the United States was carried on by the Mormon settlers 
in the Salt Lake valley, Utah, in 1847. About twenty 
years later California and Colorado began to irrigate. 
To-day all the states in the semiarid and arid parts of the 
United States are practicing irrigation. 

The Need of Irrigation. Wherever there is insufficient 
rainfall some method of irrigation is necessary for the full 
development of crops. The greatest need for irrigation is 
in regions of slight rainfall or in regions where rainfall does 
not come at the proper times during the growing season. 
Not only is irrigation valuable as a means of making dry 
and desert lands productive, but it is also a valuable agent 
in the semiarid and the humid districts in carrying crops 
through critical periods during the hot, dry summer 
months. 

The Advantages of Irrigation. Irrigation provides the 
required amount of moisture for the growing vegetation at 

(194) 



IRRIGATION 195 

the time when it is most necessary. Naturally, in all arid 
regions there is an abundance of sunshine. This con- 
tinuous sunshine, together with the proper moisture con- 
tent in the soil from irrigation, greatly stimulates plaiijt 
life. In this way irrigation affords almost ideal conditions 
for agi"iculture. 

Sources of Water. The success of any irrigation project 
depends upon the availability of an abundant supply of 




Correct irrigation insures high production: a Kansas alfalfa fiel.I. 

water at all times. Water for irrigation may be secured 
by diversion from perennial streams and lakes; by the 
storage of flood water from natural watercourses; and by 
the use of underground waters secured by mechanical 
methods. 

Irrigation Systems. There are two general systems of 
irrigation : gravity systems and mechanical systems. 

Gravity Systems. Gravity systems of irrigation are 
more extensively used . Such a system consists primarily of 
headworks for the proper diversion of the water from 
perennial streams, lakes, or reservoirs, and the distributing 
system to conduct the water to the land to be irrigated. 



196 AGRICULTURE 

The headworks consist of proper gates and appliances 
to permit regulation of the flow of water into the dis- 
tributing system. Usually a dam or a diversion weir is 
constructed in the stream channel to raise the level of the 
water to such a height that it will enter the gates. The 
early irrigators used sacks of sand, placed in the stream 
beds, to form dams, but as water has become more valu- 
able large sums of money have been invested in substantial 
and permanent headworks to divert and regulate the 
stream flow. Not only must these headworks be con- 
structed to divert the water properly, but they must be 
strong enough to resist the force of extreme flood condi- 
tions, to which all mountain streams are subject. 

The distributing system begins at the headworks. It 
consists of canals of proper dimension so located as to give 
a natural flow of water over all the lands to be irrigated. 
In order to bring this water to the lands it is necessary to 
carry it to a higher elevation than it would have if it 
followed the natural stream bed. This is accomplished 
by carrying the canal systems along the foot of the hills 
on the sides of the river valley. These canals do not have 
so steep a slope, or grade, as the natural stream bed. For 
example, if a river has a fall of ten feet to the mile, the 
water can be diverted into a canal system with a fall of 
one foot a mile, and at the end of ten miles the water in 
the canal system will be ninety feet higher than the water 
in the stream bed. By carrying the canals along the bases 
of the hills on the side of a valley, vast areas of productive 
land can be irrigated. The ditches are constructed in earth 
or rock in much the same manner as drainage ditches. 
The irrigation canal must, however, be so located as to 
conduct the water away from a larger stream, the branches, 
or laterals, of the canal system gradually carrying smaller 
quantities of water. The main canals conduct the water to 



IRRIGATION 



197 



the laterals, while the laterals conduct the water to the 
farmers' ditches for final distribution to the fields. 

Mechanical Systems. Where water can not be secured 
from a stream or a lake by natural fall, some mechanical 




A lateral carrying water to a distunt part of the field. 

method is required to lift the water upon the land to be 
irrigated. This is usually accomplished by means of 
pumps and engines. Irrigation by pumping is becoming 
more and more popular each year. The water may be 
secured from streams or lakes, or from wells penetrating 
the underlying strata of water-bearing sand and gravel. 
Irrigation by mechanical methods is important, because 
it insures the development of vast areas of arid lands in 
regions where gravity systems would not be practicable. 
Naturally such irrigation systems are very flexible, and a 
few acres or several thousand acres may be watered as one 
regulates the size of the pumping unit. Mechanical 
systems of irrigation are not so reliable, however, as well- 



198 



AGRICULTURE 



designed gravity systems. In order to be dependable, the 
mechanical devices for irrigation by pumping must be 
of the very best type of standard construction. In different 
parts of Kansas water for mechanical irrigation may be 
pumped from streams or from underlying water-bearing 
strata. 

WINDMILL IRRIGATION 

The windmill is used extensively for pumping water to 
irrigate small areas of land about the farm home. Wind- 




Pumping underground water for irrigation. 

mills have been improved during recent years, and are 
now readily obtainable from dealers in agricultural imple- 
ments. It is necessary to select windmills of compact and 
simple construction, and preferably such as have gained 
a reputation by actual performance under average agri- 
cultural conditions. Where windmills are used to pump 
the water it is necessary to have adequate water storage 
to carry the crops through periods when the wind does 
not blow. It is economical to have a storage tank to ac- 
cumulate a supply, or head, of water which can be used 
to advantage when turned upon the land. The average 
windmill will not irrigate much more than one-half to 



IRRIGATION 



199 



three-fourths of an acre. The cost of windmill plants 
would be excessive where large areas must be watered, but 
for small farm gardens and lawns the windmill plant affords 
an economical and convenient method of supplying water. 
The Head of Water. The volume of water used to 
irrigate land is known as the head of water. Where only 
small quantities of water 
are available, it is nec- 
essary for the farmer to 
irrigate with small irri- 
gation heads. Where, 
on the other hand, the 
quantity of water is 
large, the farmer can irri- 
gate with high heads of 
water. In some irriga- 
tion districts as much 
as fifteen cubic feet of 
water a second is avail- 
able for the farmer when 
he is ready to irrigate. 
This is regarded as a 
very high head of water. 

The Duty of Water. 

''The duty of water" is 

a term usually applied 

to the quantity of water 

required to mature a 

crop. It is also used to refer to the area of land which a 

given flow of water will irrigate during a season. 

LOSSES OF WATER 

Seepage. It is impossible to apply water to the soil 
without losses. In the first place, earth canals are not 




Pumping underground water with a windmill and 
storing the water in an earth reservoir. This method 
is adapted to irrigating small areas. 



200 AGRICULTURE 

absolutely water-tight. Part of the water will percolate 
into the soil and seep away. This loss is known as seepage. 

Deep Percolation. When water is applied to the soil in 
too great a quantity a portion of it will percolate to a 
depth beyond the root zone of the plant to be grown. This 
water is beyond the control of the irrigator, and conse- 
quently must be regarded as a loss. The process is known 
as deep percolation. 

Evaporation. There is always some evaporation when 
water surface is exposed to the air. From the time when 
the water enters the- head gate of the canal system until 
the time when it is applied to the crops there is consider- 
able exposure of the surface of the water to the air, and 
consequently there must be more or less evaporation. This 
evaporation can be controlled only by running the water 
through closed ditches. The expense of this is too great 
in comparison with the amount of water saved, and con- 
sequently evaporation in ditches is a loss which must be 
considered, but which can not be economically remedied. 
Evaporation of water from the soil following an irrigation 
may be reduced by proper tillage. 

THE PREPARATION OF THE LAND 

Ideal irrigation is a thorough and even application of 
the water to all parts of the field. This can not be obtained 
when the surface of the land is uneven, since the natural 
tendency of water is to seek a common level ; accordingly, 
certain portions of the field will receive too much water, 
while other parts will receive scarcely any. The irrigator 
must, therefore, level the land so that the water can be 
efficiently and evenly distributed to all parts of the field. 

The Application of Water. An important step in secur- 
ing a high duty of water is to select correct methods of 
applying the water. There are four principal methods of 



IRRIGATION 



201 



irrigating land by applying water to the surface: wild 
flooding; flooding within borders; irrigation by furrows; 




Sketch showing typical irrigation systems for a small farm. A, Irri- 
gation canal. B, Farmer's head gate. C, Strip check system of irrigation. 
D, Square check system. E, Orchard irrigation by furrowa. F, Furrow 
irrigation for field crops. Q, Border irrigation. 

irrigation by checks. In addition to this, water is occasion- 
ally applied to the soil by other methods, known as sub- 
irrigation and sprinkling. 

Wild Flooding. By means of the wild flooding method, 
the water is run down the slope of the land in sheets flow- 
ing from the supply, or head, ditches. These sheets of 



202 AGRICULTURE 

water overlap or cross one another as they flow across the 
field. This method of water distribution requires com- 
paratively little labor and is applicable to such crops as 
wheat, oats, and the grasses. It is not a perfect system, 
as the water can not be spread evenly over the field. 
The lands nearest the lateral ditches are liable to 
receive too much water, while the lower ends of the field 
are likely to get too little, or, if enough water is permitted 
to flow to the lower end, provision must be made for the 
necessary waste of water. This method of irrigation can 
be successfully used only on sloping land that will not 
wash. 

Border Irrigation. Where the border method of irriga- 
tion is used the water is run in the direction of the slope, 
over the ground to be irrigated. This method permits the 
use of large heads of water, and the ground is irrigated 
uniformly between the ridges; but this method is likely to 
result in over-irrigation at the upper end of the field and 
under-irrigation at the lower end, unless a large amount of 
water is applied and provision is made for a considerable 
part of the water to run to waste. The length of run for 
the water depends upon the character of the soil and the 
quantity of water used for irrigation. Fairly porous soils 
require, for economy of water, comparatively short runs. 

Furrow Irrigation. Where furrow irrigation is practiced 
small depressions are plowed out across the ground to be 
irrigated, in the direction of the slope, and the water is 
permitted to run down these furrows for a sufficient length 
of time to soak the ground thoroughly. This method of 
irrigation does not require a large amount of work on the 
part of the irrigator, and the losses from evaporation and 
seepage are not very great if the furrow is not too long. 
In most cases the length of the furrow should not exceed 



IRRIGATION 203 

five hundred feet. Furrow irrigation is especially adapted 
to crops which are cultivated, such as sugar beets, potatoes, 
corn, and orchard fruits. In some cases, however, fields 
which are planted to alfalfa are corrugated, or little fur- 




Furrow irrigation for root crops. 

rows are pressed into the surface by special machinery, and 
in this way furrow irrigation can be practiced for sown 
crops. 

The Check System. The check system of irrigation is 
used extensively. The field is marked off into a series 
of level plats surrounded by little ridges, or dikes, 
and into these plats the water is run to the required 
depth for irrigation. This method can be used on prac- 
tically all kinds of crops, but is especially adapted 
to alfalfa, wheat, barley, and other non-cultivated 
sown crops. Considerable work is required to prepare the 
land to receive the water, but when the land has been 
properly prepared this method of irrigation requires little 
effort, and few unavoidable losses of water occur. The 
size of the check varies with the character of the soil to be 



204 AGRICULTURE 

irrigated. Porous, open, and sandy soils should have 
small checks, while the heavier soils can be successfully 
irrigated by larger checks. No check should contain more 
than one and one-fourth acres of land, and usually checks 
should vary from fifty to one hundred feet in width and 
from three hundred to five hundred feet in length. 

Subirrigation. The introduction of water into the soil 
by means of underground pipes is known as subirrigation. 
Subirrigation is, theoretically, an ideal system of water 
distribution, but unless the soil conditions are ideal the 
water will not spread very far laterally from the sides of 
the pipe line. Experience indicates that the underground 
pipes should be placed from twelve to sixteen inches deep 
and in parallel lines from six to eight feet apart. The cost 
of placing these pipes beneath the surface of the ground 
makes this method of water distribution practically pro- 
hibitive except for small areas. 




An earth reservoir used for storing water for irrigation. To the right is a main ditch leading to 

the field. 

Sprinkling. Valuable sprinkling systems of irrigation 
have been devised for the irrigation of vegetables and 
plants. Sprinkling more nearly approaches the conditions 
of natural rainfall than does any other system of irrigation. 



IRRIGATION 205 

It requires, however, proper appliances above the surface 
of the ground in order to distribute the water over the 
area to be irrigated. Consequently such systems of irri- 
gation are not suitable except for truck farming and for 
greenhouse use. 

THE AMOUNT OF WATER TO USE 

Water losses may be reduced by using proper heads of 
water for irrigation. Sandy, open, and porous lands must 
be irrigated with high heads of water, otherwise the losses 
through seepage and deep percolation will be excessive. 
On heavier lands where the subsoil is rather compact, 
smaller heads of water may be used. 

The irrigator must use good judgment in the amount of 
water to apply and the time to apply it. Loam and clay 
loam soils have the capacity of holding in suspension large 
quantities of water. Such soils do not require frequent 
irrigations, but a considerable quantity of water can be 
applied at one time. On the other hand, soils that are 
gravelly and sandy hold very little water in suspension, and 
upon such lands frequent small applications of water are 
necessary to produce maximum yields. The irrigation 
farmer must study his soil conditions, and his experience 
in handling the water should guide him in determining the 
proper amount to apply to the soil and the proper time to 
apply the water. 

CULTIVATION 

The successful irrigator must of necessity be a good dry- 
land farmer. In order to make irrigation really profitable 
and reliable, just enough water must be used to promote 
the healthy growth of plant life. If the greatest good is to 
be secured from the available water supply, the irrigator 
must also practice careful cultivation. Proper cultivation 



206 AGRICULTURE 

prevents undue losses from evaporation, and the stirring 
of the soil promotes the healthy growth of plants. It may 
be in some cases cheaper to apply water than to cultivate, 
but the excessive use of water is usually followed by evil 
results to the land. Many thousands of acres of land in 
the arid sections of the United States are in an unproduc- 
tive condition because of saturation due to seepage from 
canals and over-application of water to the crops. Such 
soils require artificial drainage in order to make them 
productive. Irrigation farming requires the application 
of the very best principles of farming, as well as careful 
business judgment on the part of the irrigator. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Define irrigation. Why is irrigation often necessary? 

2. Give some of the advantages of irrigation. 

3. From what three general sources may water be secured for 
irrigation? 

4. How may irrigation systems be classified? 

5. Of what does a gravity system of irrigation consist? 

6. What conditions are necessary for mechanical systems of ir- 
rigation? 

7. Under what circumstances may windmills be used for irriga- 
tion? 

8. Why is a reservoir necessary for a sucessful windmill irrigation 
plant? 

9. What is meant by the term, "head of water"? 

10. How may water be lost in irrigation ditches? 

11. What do you understand by deep percolation? 

12. Name and describe four principal methods of irrigating land. 

13. To what extent is subirrigation applicable as a means of 
water distribution? To what extent is sprinkling applicable? 

14. What factors are to be considered in regulating the quantity 
of water to apply? 

15. Show the importance of cultivation in connection with irri- 
gation. 



CHAPTER XX 

FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Plants the Source of Animal Food. Plants are the sole 
source of animal food. Without plants animals could 
not live. Some animals eat the flesh of other animals and 
of birds, but the food even of these may be traced back to 
plants. When man eats beef or pork, he is eating plants 
that have been changed into animal flesh. The plant, 
therefore, is of fundamental importance to the farmer 
who raises cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, and poultrj^ He 
must grow plenty of plants, such as corn, sorghum, alfalfa, 
wheat, oats, and grass, to furnish food for his farm ani- 
mals. There must also be a variety to supply the needs 
of the animals. When an animal grows, works, or fat- 
tens, it needs food in larger quantity than that used when 
it is idle. Some plants are especially adapted to pro- 
ducing growth. Others are better suited to making fat 
or to giving the animal strength to do work. Some 
plants are eaten green, as pasture grass; others are cured 
to make hay. Many plants produce seed, and in 
plants like corn, wheat, and oats the seed is the most 
valuable part for animal food. Feeds such as bran, shorts, 
cottonseed meal, and flaxseed meal are by-products of 
mills and factories. The feeder must work out the com- 
bination of these feeds that best meets the animal's 
needs, and then so prepare the feeds that the animal may 
get the greatest benefit. 

USES OF ANIMAL FOODS 

Maintenance. Animal foods have two general uses. 
First, the animal must have enough food to keep all the 

(207) 



208 AGRICULTURE 

vital organs of its body working, to keep it warm, and 
to give it enough strength to move about in search of 
food and water. The amount of food necessary for these 
purposes depends somewhat upon the conditions under 
which the animal lives. When kept in a comfortable 
stable, with water and feed supplied, it does not require 
so much for warmth and strength as when it has to search 
for food in large fields or pastures where it is exposed to 
rain and cold. 

Growth and Fattening. Second, any food that is left 
after the needs for existence have been supplied will be 
used to build up the body or to do work. If the animal is 
young it is likely to use the additional food for growth of 
muscle, bone, skin, and other tissue. If the animal is 
fully grown, it will make the surplus feed into fat, which 
is stored in the body to be used for maintenance in case 
of scarcity of feed. Therefore, when a fat animal does not 
have enough feed it will use its body fat for heat energy, 
and thus will soon become thin. By the time its fat is 
gone, and it is getting weak on account of the lack of food, 
the snow which has covered the food may have melted, or 
the drouth may have been broken by rains, and the green 
grass may be springing up again to supply the animal's 
needs. Thus the animal that is fat may live through snow 
or drouth, while the animal that is thin may die of starva- 
tion before relief comes. Nature gives animals this power 
to store up food and energy to be used in a time of need, 
and man is now making use of nature's gift for his own 
support. The farmer furnishes his animals with an abun- 
dance of feed, and they grow and become fat. The fat, 
with the muscles, makes the cuts of meat thick, juicy, 
and tender. 

Work. When a horse works he may have an abundant 
supply of food, yet does not put on fat. He is using his 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 209 

extra food for energy to do work. If the work is hard, 
hke plowing or hauHng heavy loads, the feed must be 
increased to supply the energy needed, or the animal 
will use his body fat to furnish energy and will soon be- 
come thin and lose strength. Therefore the farmer makes 
use of the animal's power to change surplus food into 
energy. 

Milk. When a cow is producing milk she may have 
an abundance of feed, yet does not become fat. She, like 
the horse, is using her surplus food for another purpose — 
not work, however, but the production of milk. 

Uses. The first use of food, maintenance, is in running 
the animal machine. The second use of food may be di- 
vided into a number of production purposes, such as 
growth, work, and the production of fat, milk, eggs, and 
wool. Maintenance must always come first, because the 
animal, like an engine, must be in running order before 
it can do work. When only a small amount of coal is sup- 
plied to the engine it will produce just enough power or 
energy, in the form of steam, to turn its own wheels; but 
if given an abundance of coal it will have enough energy 
to turn the wheels of the threshing machine or the mill. 
The animal can not do work or produce muscle, fat, or 
milk until it first has enough feed to move the wheels of 
life. Food supplied in addition to the amount required 
for the maintenance of the body will be used for produc- 
tion. 

KINDS OF FEED 

Concentrates and Roughages. There are many kinds 
of animal feeds, which in general, however, may be divided 
into two classes: first, those rich feeds, such as com, oats 
and kafir, which furnish an abundance of nourishment 
with little waste ; second, those rough feeds, such as hay, 

14 



210 AGRICULTURE 

fodder, and straw, which do not furnish so much nourish- 
ment but contain a great deal of material which the ani- 
mal can not digest. The members of the first group are 
called concentrates, because they are rich in food ma- 
terial and are easily digested by the animal, while the 
members of the second are called roughages on account 
of their coarse nature, which makes them hard to digest. 
When hay, fodder, or straw is eaten it must be well 
chewed in preparation for swallowing. When these feeds 
are very hard and dry this process consumes much energy, 
and the animal must use some of the valuable part of his 
feed to produce this energy. If the feeds do not require 
so much grinding and are easily digested the energy will 
be used for some other purpose, such as making growth 
or fat or performing work for the farmer. 

Feeding Value. Concentrates have a high feeding 
value, while roughages have a comparatively low feeding 
value. Some roughages, such as com stover or wheat 
straw, are very low in food value, being woody and 
rough; while others, such as alfalfa and clover hay, 
with their many fine leaves and stems, are tender, and 
have a high food value, almost equal to that of some of 
the concentrates. In plants such as clover and alfalfa, 
which produce very small seeds, the greater part of the 
plant food remains in the leaves and stems instead of 
making seed as in corn and wheat. When these plants are 
to be cured as hay they are cut before the seed is formed, 
which plan allows all of the food to remain in the stems 
and leaves, thus making a rich, nutritious hay. 

THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 

Feeds of different kinds are made up of different food 
materials called nutrients. Some of these food materials 
or nutrients may make up the greater part of a plant or 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 211 

feed, while others may be almost entirely absent. Then, 
in another plant or feed there may be found an abundance 
of nutrients which were lacking in the first plant or feed. 
The Composition of Animal Bodies. One can better 
undei"stand the needs of animals if one knows something 
of the composition of their bodies. Animal bodies are 
composed of water, protein, fat, ash, and a very small 
amount of carbohydrate material. This is very similar 
to the composition of plants, except that plants contain 
an abundance of carbohydrates, while animals have a 
larger amount of fat. When the animal tears down plant 
carbohydrates, it does not rebuild them into animal car- 
bohydrates, but uses them for fat, heat, or work. Young 
animals, as a rule, have less stored fat, and therefore will 
die of starvation sooner than mature animals. Their 
bodies contain a larger proportion of water and muscle 
tissue, and their demands are for growth -producing nu- 
trients, such as protein and ash, while the bodies of ma- 
ture animals demand foods more suitable for maintenance, 
fat, and work. 

THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 

The Purpose of Digestion. Before food can be used in 
the animal body it must undergo the processes of diges- 
tion. These processes make the nutrients soluble, so that 
they may be carried by the blood to different parts of the 
body, where they are used. The animal during digestion 
tears down the food which was so carefully built up and 
stored in the plant. It then rebuilds the food into body 
tissue, or may use it for heat or work. 

Work Done in the Mouth. In most farm animals the 
first step in the processes of digestion takes place in the 
mouth, where the food is ground and moistened with 
saliva. The saliva acts on a part of the starch in the 



212 AGRICULTURE 

food, changing it to sugar, which is soluble and easily- 
absorbed into the body when it reaches the intestines. 

Work Done in the Stomach. After the food is thor- 
oughly ground and moistened to be swallowed, it passes 
to the stomach, where further digestion takes place. Here 
some of the protein nutrients are attacked by the digestive 
juices secreted by the stomach, and are broken down into 
soluble forms so that they may be absorbed and carried 
by the blood to parts of the body that need material for 
growth or repair. 

Work Done in the Intestines. After the food has been 
churned about in the stomach for some time, allowing the 
juices to break down nutrients, it passes to the intes- 
tines, where the fats are digested and where most of the 
broken-down nutrients are absorbed by the blood and 
lymph, to be transported to all parts of the body. Some 
of the coarse, woody part of the feed passes on as waste 
because the digestive juices are not able to break it down. 

Diflferences in Digestive Tracts of Animals. The 
digestive tracts of farm animals differ widely, some of 
them being adapted to the digestion of rough feeds, while 
others must have the greater part of their food supply in 
the form of concentrates. Because of their stomach ca- 
pacity, cattle, sheep, and goats are able to digest large 
quantities of rough feeds. Each of these animals has 
four stomachs through which the feed passes during diges- 
tion First, the feed is eaten hurriedly and stored in the 
first stomach, which is very large and is called the paunch. 
After the food is mixed somewhat in the first and second 
stomachs, it is returned to the mouth in the form of balls, 
to be chewed. The regrinding takes place while the ani- 
mal rests, and we say the animal is chewing its cud. 
The horse has only one small stomach, but, on account 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



213 



of large intestines, and a pouch called the caecum, it can 
digest rough feeds, such as hay and straw. It does not, 
however, digest these feeds so thoroughly as does the cow, 




Stomnch of horse: 1. Cardiac end. Stomachs of cow: 1, Rumen, or 

2, Pyloric end. (taunch, showing attachment of the 

esophagus; 2, reticulum; 3, omasum, 
or manyplies; 4, aboraasum, or diges- 
tive stomach, showing attachment of 
the small intestine. 

and hence requires more concentrates, such as corn and 
oats. The pig has a small stomach and small intestines, 
which fact requires that the greater part of its ration be 
made up of grain or other concentrated feed. Such 
rough feeds as alfalfa and clover hay, which have a high 
food value and many fine stems and leaves, are relished by 
hogs, and may be made to supply a large part of the sow's 
ration during winter months, when she is not producing 
milk for her pigs. Hogs that are being fattened must have 
an abundance of concentrates and little or no roughage. 
Cattle, sheep, and goats live on rough feeds alone, but if 
they are being fattened, plenty of concentrates, such as 
corn, wheat, kafir, and barley, must be added to the 
roughage to supply an abundance of nutrients which are 
easily digested. 



214 AGRICULTURE 

The following table* will give a good idea as to the 
capacity of the digestive organs of farm animals: 

Capacity of stomach and intestines. Length of intestine.^. 

Horse — Quarts. Feet. 

Stomach 19.0 Small 73.6 

Intestines 204 . 8 Large 24 . 5 

223.8 98.1 
Ox- 
All four stomachs 266.9 Small 150.9 

Intestines 109 . 8 Large 36 . 3 



376.7 187.2 

Sheep 

All four stomachs 31.3 Small 85 . 9 

Intestines 15.4 Large 21.4 



46.7 107.3 
Hog— 

Stomach 8.5 Small 60.0 

Intestines. 20.5 Large 17.1 

29,0 77.1 

Kinds of Nutrients and their Uses. The food nutrients 
may be divided into two general classes, according to 
their uses by the animal : those which produce growth and 
repair; those which produce fat and energy. The first 
are called protein material; the second, carbohydrates 
and fats. All plants are made up of protein, carbohy- 
drates, fats, water, and material called mineral matter, 
or ash. The animal uses mineral matter, or ash, chiefly 
to make bone. Ash is also used in small amounts in the 
blood, digestive juices, and other soft parts of the body. 
Except in rare cases, the demand by the animal for min- 
eral matter is not greater than the supply; the farmer 
therefore is not so much concerned with furnishing this 
material as with furnishing sufficient amounts of protein to 
meet the needs of growth and repair, or of carbohydrates 
and fats to produce heat, energy, and fat. 

* Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 19. 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 215 

The Nutritive Value of Feeds. Corn, wheat, barley, 
and kafir are fattening feeds because they contain a 
large amount of carbohydrates, such as starch and sugar; 
some fat in the form of oil; and a comparatively small 
amount of protein. Alfalfa, clover, bran, shorts, and 
milk are growth-producing feeds, since they contain 
comparatively large amounts of protem, which is essen- 
tial to gi-owth. The fattening feeds contain some protein. 
In feeding corn, however, as there is not enough protein, 
or gi'owth-producing nutrients, to meet the needs of the 
young animal, it is necessary for the farmer to supply 
protein by adding to the corn some feed, like skim milk 
or alfalfa, which is rich in protein material. Often the 
farmer does not produce enough protein feeds to supply 
the needs of his animals, and it is necessary for him to 
buy such feeds as cottonseed meal, linseed meal, shorts, 
meat meal, and tankage to add to his fattening feeds, in 
order that his live stock may grow into profitable animals. 

Following is a list of some of the most common feeds, 
classified according to their composition — those rich in 
protein and hence suitable for the production of growth, 
and those rich in carbohydrates and fat and therefore 
suitable for maintenance or for fattening: 

Prorein feeds. Carbohydrate feeds. 

Alfalfa hay. Corn. 

Clover hay. Wheat. 

Vetch hay. Barley. 



Wheat bran. 


Oats. 


Wheat shorts. 


Rye. 


Linseed meal. 


Kafir. 


Cottonseed meal. 


Milo. 


Whole milk. 


Sweet sori 


Skim milk. 


Hominy f 


Cowpeas. 


Molasses. 


Soy beans. 


Beets. 


Gluten meal. 


Silage. 



216 



AGRICULTURE 



ProteLa feeds. 

Gluten feed. 

Distillers' grains (dried). 

Brewers' grains (dried). 

Oat middlings. 

Tankage. 

Meat scraps. 

Germ-oil meal. 



Carboh ydrate feeds 

Corn fodder. 
Corn stover. 
Timothy hay. 
Prairie hay. 
Millet. 
Oat straw. 
Wheat straw. 



NEEDS OF THE ANIMAL 

The Ration. The amount of feed given an animal in a 
day is called a ration. This ration may be sufficient in 
amount and composition 
to meet all the needs of 
the animal, or it may be 
a starvation ration. 
If it meets all the re- 
quirements of the ani- 
mal without waste of 
nutrients, it is called a 
balanced ration. The 
animal, like man, rel- 
ishes its ration more if 
there is a variety, and 
especially if part of the 
food is green, or fresh. 
By mixing the feeds the 
ration may be made to 
taste better, and the 
animal will eat more. 
Moreover, mixing pro- 
tein feeds and carbo- 
hydrate feeds permits 
the making of a bal- 
anced ration, or one 
which supplies the needs of the animal, whether for 
maintenance or growth, fat or work. 




Carcaspcs of two hogs the same age. The small 
hog was fed only corn. The large hog was fed corn 
and alfalfa. 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 217 

The EfiFect of Different Rations. The accompany- 
ing illustrations show some of the needs of animals. 
The first photograph shows the effect of feeding young 
pigs with corn alone and with corn and alfalfa. The pigs 
were given all they would eat in each case. The small pig 
received corn and water. He grew very slowly and did not 
relish his feed. The large pig ate a mixture of corn and al- 
falfa. He kept a good appetite and made a rapid growth. 
The alfalfa supplied the protein for growth which the corn 




Steers two years old. They were fed the same kind of feed from birth. The small stcur 
was allowed only enough for maintenance, while the large steer had all he wotild eat. 

lacked. Unless the carbohydrates and fat are supplied 
as needed, the animal will not grow as it should. If there 
is a deficiency of protein the animal will remain small and 
thin, like the pig which ate corn alone. If no protein is 
supplied in the feed the animal will soon die, because the 
protein in his body will waste away. This shows how 
vitally important the protein nutrients are to the animal. 
The Amount of Feed. In many cases animals have the 
right kind of feed for growth, but are not fed enough to 
supply their needs. The accompanying picture shows 
two steers of the same age. The large one has had plenty 
of the right kind of feed all his life, while the small one has 
had the same kind of feed, but barely enough of it to keep 



218 AGRICULTURE 

him alive. He had enough for maintenance, but none for 
production. The large steer wei£;;hs 1250 pounds; the 
small one, 227 pounds. 

The Feeder's Duty No^:. it is evident that the farmer 
must do at least three things in feeding live stock. First, 
he must so prepare the feed that the animal will relish it. 
Second, he must supply his animals with protein and 
carbohydrates in the right proportions. Third, he must 
feed his animals enough to meet their needs. 

THE PREPARATION OF FEEDS 

Often we may help the animal to digest its feed more 
thoroughly by grinding, crushing, or soaking the feed. 
Small seeds, like wheat, rye, barley, kafir, milo, sorghum, 
and millet, are very hard, and if they are swallowed with- 
out much chewing, the digestive juices can not penetrate 
their hard coverings to break down their nutrients, and 
they pass on undigested, just as does the coarse, woody 
material which the juices can not digest. This waste 
of food may be prevented by grinding or by soaking to 
make digestion easy, but often this does not pay if the 
cost of grinding is very high. If we know that six per 
cent of the food value of corn can be saved for the pigs 
by grinding and that the grinding costs three cents a 
bushel, we can figure when it will pay the farmer to grind 
his corn for hogs. If his corn costs forty cents a bushel 
he will lose by grinding it. If the price is fifty cents, he 
will come out even. If, however, the price is above fifty 
cents, the gi-inding will pay, and the higher the price the 
larger the profit in grinding. The more valuable the 
feeds, the better can we afford to prepare them for easy 
digestion and to make them palatable. Cooking feeds 
sometimes makes them more palatable for the animal, 
but cooking is expensive and lowers the feeding value of 



FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 219 

the protein nutrients. Therefore it does not pay, except 
in a very few cases. Feeds that are already palatable 
and feeds that are rich in protein should not be cooked 
for animals. Soaking feeds, especially the small, hard 
grains, makes them more easily digested and is inex- 
pensive. 

If soaked feeds are allowed to stand during warm 
weather they become sour, and may be injurious to ani- 
mals, especially young animals. Care should be used in 
feeding such feeds, as in any case where the feed is dam- 
aged. Moldy feeds are injurious to most animals, and 
particularly to horses. Such feeds should not be used at 
all if badly damaged. Cattle will eat them with less 
danger than other animals. When farm animals are using 
feed for production purposes it often pays to prepare 
the feed by gi'inding, crushing, chopping, or soaking it. 
The animal is allowed to save energy in digesting its 
feed, and the feed will be used for growth, work, milk, 
or fat. If the animal is idle, it may well afford to grind 
its own feed, and some of the cheaper rough feeds will 
supply its needs quite as well as the higher-priced con- 
centrates which are so valuable for production purposes. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What parts of the common farm plants are used by animals? 
Which parts are most valuable for feed? 

2. Distinguish between concentrates and roughages and give 
five examples of each. Give two reasons why roughages have a 
lower feeding value than concentrates. 

3. Name the uses of digested feed in the animal body. What 
demands of the animal body must first be supplied when feed is 
consumed? 

4. Why does an animal put fat on its body when it has an extra 
supply of feed? Is this of economic importance? Explain. 

5. Explain why an animal becomes thin when doing very hard 
work. 

6. What are nutrients? 



220 AGRICULTURE 

7. What is the greatest use of mineral matter in the animal body? 

8. What is a ration? Why should balanced rations be fed? ■ 

9. Compare, in effect on the development of young animals, a 
ration low in protein with a ration containing a liberal amount of 
protein. 

10. What are the advantages of making the animal's ration pal- 
atable? 

11. What can the feeder do to aid in securing maximum growth 
in his live stock? Give reasons for your answer. 

12. Does the animal obtain all of its body fat from the fats in 
its feed? If not, what are the other sources of body fat? 

13. State the purpose of digestion. In what parts of the body 
does digestion take place? 

14. Why are cattle better able than horses to live on corn fodder 
and wheat straw? Explain fully. 

15. What effect does the price of a feed have on the care that 
should be used in preparing it for the animal? What are the objec- 
tions to cooking feeds for animals? 



CHAPTER XXI 

HORSE PRODUCTION 

The Kansas climate is well adapted to the production 
of horses. There exists to-day, in the city and on the 
farm, a demand for high-class horses. This demand can 
not be supplied, because there are very few horses of this 
kind in the country. At the same time, both market and 
country are overstocked with inferior horses, for which 
there is no particular demand. 

Recent statistics show that Kansas owners have ap- 
proximately $150,000,000 invested in horses and mules, 
as against $106,500,000 invested in all other classes 
of live stock combined. This means that these owners 
have approximately forty per cent more money invested 
in horse stock than in all other stock, yet less attention 
and study has been given to profitable horse production 
than to the production of any other kind of animal. 

THE ORIGIN OF THE HORSE 

The Prehistoric Horse. It is well known that horses 
existed in all parts of the world long before history was 
written. There are marked differences, however, be- 
tween the early animal and the present-day horse. 
The early horse resembled a dog more than a horse, 
being probably a foot in height, and having four well- 
developed toes and one partly developed toe on each 
front foot, and three well-developed toes and one partly 
developed toe on each hind foot. The horse of to-day 
has reached its present state of development largely by 
adapting itself to a gradually changing climate through 

(221) 



222 AGRICULTURE 

centuries, and by means of the improvements made by 
man through careful selections in breeding and through 
proper feed and protection. 

The Modern Horse. Horses were not used for work 
in early times, but were worshipped and were ridden in 
war. For three thousand years after the horse was do- 
mesticated (2080 B. C. to 1066 A, D.), it was used very 
little, if at all, for any other purposes. During the year 
1066 A. D., the horse was first used as a farm animal, and 
from that day to the present it has been constantly used 
both for farm work and for hauling loads. In the 
earliest history of the modern horse are described several 
distinct types. All our present breeds of horses have 
developed from blending and improving these early types. 

Classification of Horses. Horses are classified pri- 
marily according to size, type, substance, and quality. 
Size includes both height and weight. The form of the 
horse determines the type. Substance is indicated by 
strength and durability, while quality is determined by 
refinement of fiber of the animal. 

Horses may be classified as follows: 

Heavy Service — 

Draft horses. 

Logging horses. 

Wagon horses. 

Chunks. 
Rapid Service— 

Coach, or carriage, horses. 

Park horses. 

Roadster horses. 

Runabout horses. 

Saddle horses. 

Ponies. 

BREEDS OF HORSES 

Percherons. The Percheron is a breed of draft horses 
that originated in La Perche, a small district in northern 
France. This breed was developed by crossing the native 



HORSE PRODUCTION 



90Q 



black horses of lowland Europe with horses introduced 
from Asia about 730 A. D. 

Later, when railroads were built, the rapid, light 
draft horses were no longer in demand, as they had been 
used principally for stagecoach purposes, and the breed- 




A Percheron stallion. 

ers of La Perche, with keen foresight, saw in the future 
a need and a demand for heavy draft horses, and began 
at once the work of increasing the size and weight of 
their native horses. The size of the present-day Per- 
cheron has been attained by careful selection, intelligent 
mating, and liberal feeding. 

The Percheron is an ideal drafter, not too squatty and 
not too rangy. A horse of this breed is generally well- 
made and symmetrical in form, with medium-sized feet of 



224 AGRICULTURE 

good quality. It has a bold way of going, though its ac- 
tion is not quite so true and square as that of some other 
breeds. The most popular colors in Percherons are black 
and gray. Bays, browns, chestnuts, and roans are not 
uncommon, but these colors are looked upon with dis- 
favor. The popularity of the Percheron is due to the 
animal's ability to adapt itself readily to various condi- 
tions, and to the satisfactory horses obtained when Per- 
cherons are crossed with native American mares. Some of 
the faults of the Percheron, which breeders are trying 
to eliminate, are lightness of bone, crooked and meaty 
hocks, and straight pasterns. 

French Draft Horses. There are several other dis- 
tinct breeds of draft horses that have been developed 
in France, but none of these is so widely disseminated as 
the Percheron. An association has been organized in 
the United States for the purpose of registering the 
various draft horses of French origin and designating 
them as French draft horses. 

Belgian Draft Horses. Belgian horses have descended 
from the massive black horse of the Low Countries, and 
the present-day type is the result of careful selection 
and feeding. The work of improving the breed of horses 
has been encouraged by the Belgian government since the 
middle of the nineteenth century. No other government 
has taken such keen interest in improving its horses or has 
been more liberal in its appropriations for this work. 
Belgian horses are more massive and more compactly 
built than Percherons. They are noted for their excel- 
lent middles, and for their easy keeping qualities. The 
principal colors are chestnut, roan, and bay. Brown is 
not an uncommon color. Occasionally one sees a black 
or a gray. Belgians mate well with ordinary farm horses, 



HORSE PRODUCTION 



225 



and their popularity is increasing very rapidly. The 
Belgian horse has been criticised for being a bit low in the 
back, somewhat squatty, and steep in the croup, and hav- 




A Belgian mare. 

ing poor feet, but the Belgian breeders are overcoming 
these faults very rapidly. 

Shire Horses. The Shire horse has been known by 
various names, of which perhaps the most common is 
"English Cart Horse." It is generally thought that the 
Shire originated from crossing the black horses of lowland 
Europe upon the native horses of England at intervals for 
several centuries. The present-day Shire, as a breed, is 
the most massive of all draft horses. Shires have a very 
heavy growth of hair — feather, as it is designated by 
horsemen — on the leg from knee to hoof. The principal 

15 



226 AGRICULTURE 

colors are bay and brown, although many other colors are 
not uncommon, particularly chestnut and black, or even 
gray or roan. White markings on face and legs are rather 
common. The average Shire horses imported to this 




A Shire stallion. 

country are not the best representatives of the breed, and 
may be criticised as a bit coarse, straight of pastern, and 
flat of foot, and as having too much hair on the legs. 

Clydesdales. The Clydesdale originated along the 
river Clyde in Scotland. The black horse of the Low 
Countries, later known as the Flemish horse, had consid- 
erable to do with the origin of the Clydesdale. Later, 
Shires of quality were used occasionally. The Clydesdale 



HORSE PRODUCTION 



227 



of to-day is not so massive as the Shire, the Belgian, or the 
Percheron, but shows truer and snappier action and 
higher quahty than any other breed of draft horses. 
Clydesdales have considerable hair on the leg below the 




A Clydesdale mare. 

knee, but it is much finer and not so plentiful as in the 
case of Shires. Bay and brown are the most common 
colors, although chestnut, black, and roan are not un- 
common. White markings on face and legs are char- 
acteristic of the breed. 

Suffolks. The Suffolk has been bred absolutely pure 
for a longer period than any other breed of draft horses. 
It is a native of Suffolk, in eastern England. Suffolks 
are noted for their good disposition and their easy keeping 
qualities. They are always chestnut in color. This breed 



228 AGRICULTURE 

is not widely distributed, principally because it does not 
have the size demanded of present-day horses. 

Hackneys. The Hackney originated in Norfolk and ad- 
joining counties in eastern England. It is the most 
popular of all coach or carriage breeds. Hackneys vary in 
height from 15 to 15^4 hands, and are compactly built 
harness horses, with broad, full chests, short backs, long, 
level croups, and full middles. Chestnut color, with 
white feat, is most common and most popular. Bays, 
browns, and blacks are not uncommon. 

German Coach Horses. The German Coach horse is 
the largest of all coach breeds, and is the result of the 
efforts of the German government to produce an army 
horse. Considerable variation of type, quality, and ac- 
tion is noted in this breed. While some horses of this 
breed show considerable quality and flashy action, they 
may, as a rule, be criticised for lacking these qualities. 
The common colors are bay, brown, and black, with very 
little, if any, white. German Coach horses vary in weight 
from 1200 pounds to 1500 pounds. 

French Coach Horses. The French government also 
endeavored to develop an army horse, and the French 
Coach horse is the result. The French Coach horse is 
smaller and more refined than the German Coach, but is 
larger than the Hackney and lacks the quality and finish 
of that breed. Generally speaking, the French Coach 
horse has not been a satisfactory horse in this country. 
The common colors are bay, chestnut, and brown, with 
usually more than one white foot, but seldom more than 
three. 

Other Coach Horses. Other coach horses are the 
Cleveland Bay and the Yorkshire, both of which origi- 
nated in northeast England. 



HORSE PRODUCTION 229 

Standard-bred Horses. Standard-bred horses ai'e an 
American product. Most trotters and pacers of this 
country are Standard-breds or gi-ades of the breed. 

The Standard-bred horse of to-day originated from 
three principal sources: Messengei*, a Thoroughbred im- 
ported from England in 1788; Justin Morgan, a noted 
horse of Thoroughbred origin foaled in Massachusetts in 
1789; and Jary's Bellfounder, a Hackney imported to 
America in 1822. We have to-day the trotter and the 
pEicer of extreme speed and endurance as a result of care- 
ful and intelligent selection of horses descending from 
these three foundation horses of the breed. During the 
early period in the formation of this breed, several noted 
families were developed, the most important being the 
Hambletonian, the Mambrino Chief, the Pilot, the Clay, 
the Hal, and the Morgan. 

Standard-bred horses are more slender in build than 
coach horses, having clean, slender, well-set necks and 
very deep chests. The Standard-bred is the ideal roadster 
horse. As a breed, it may be criticised for lacking some- 
what in size and uniformity of type. This is due largely 
to the fact that breeders in seeking speed have not given 
due consideration to some of the other qualities a good 
horse should possess. Good Standard-bred horses vary 
in v/eight from 1000 pounds to 1200 pounds, and in 
height from 15 hands to 16}i hands. 

Morgan Horses. Morgan horses are one of the early 
families of Standard-bred horses which descended from 
Justin Morgan. They were hardy little horses and served 
a useful purpose in helping to give endurance and stamina 
to the Standard-breds as a whole ; but, because they were 
small and usually did not possess much speed, they gi*adu- 
ally fell into disfavor and were almost exterminated. An 
effort is being made to revive interest in Morgan horses. 



230 AGRICULTURE 

OrloflF Horses. The Orloff is the Russian trotter, which 
was originated during the latter part of the eighteenth 
century by crossing Arabian horses on some horses brought 
from Friesland. Gray and black are the most prevalent 
colors, but other colors are not uncommon. Orloff s do not 
have the speed of Standard-breds for distances up to a 
mile, but are superior for distances of three or four miles. 

Arabian Horses. Arabian horses originated in north- 
ern Africa, and later found their way to Arabia, where 
great improvement was made in them. The Arabian 
horse has had an important part in improving practi- 
cally all present-day breeds of horses, and this fact con- 
stitutes its chief importance. Spotted and odd-colored 
horses are very often wrongly spoken of as Arabians, but 
solid bay is the characteristic color, although grays and 
browns are not uncommon. Arabians are small horses, 
varying in height from 14 to 143^ hands. They are noted 
for quality, substance, endurance, beauty, and intelli- 
gence. 

Similar to the Arabian are the Barb horse of Barbary 
and the Turk horse of Turkey in Asia. The three breeds 
are spoken of in horse history as Oriental horses. 

Thoroughbreds. "Thoroughbred" is the name of a 
distinct breed of horses— the running horse. This breed 
originated in England from a cross of Arabian and other 
Oriental breeds upon the light native mares of that coun- 
try during the latter part of the seventeenth and early 
part of the eighteenth century. Speed on the run or the 
gallop has been the quality sought exclusively in these 
horses. The Thoroughbred has been bred pure longer 
than any of the other modern breeds, and is noted per- 
ticularly for its quality, refinement, clean-cut features, 
and high-strung temperament. 

The Thoroughbred has been used to add quality and 



HORSE PRODUCTION 



231 



refinement to practically every present-day breed — and 
especially the racing breeds — of horse. 

Thoroughbreds vary in weight from 1000 pounds to 
1200 pounds, and in height from fifteen hands to sixteen 
hands. Bay and chestnut are the common colors, al- 
though brown, black, white, and gray are not uncommon. 




An American !:-a<ldle horse. 

American Saddle Horses. The American Saddle horse 
is strictly an American breed, which was developed to 
its present character in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mis- 
souri. In the early days of Virginia, many Thorough- 
breds were brought from England, and, as the settlers 
pushed westward, travel was principally on foot and on 



232 AGRICULTURE 

horseback. The latter method was the one most often 
preferred. This created a need and a demand for horses 
of easy gait from among the Thoroughbreds and Thor- 
oughbred crosses of that day. 

Careful selection for several generations has devel- 
oped an easy-gaited saddle horse, into which has been 
bred a tendency to show several distinct gaits. Hence, it 
is known not only as the American Saddle horse, but also 
as the Gaited Saddle horse. The development of the 
American Saddle horse is an instance where the breeder 
did not lose sight of the value of symmetry of form, 
elegance, and quality in his efforts to produce a special- 
purpose horse, for to-day the American Saddle horse is 
the most beautiful, most stylish, and most intelligent of 
horses. 

Saddle horses vary in weight from 1000 pounds to 
1200 pounds. 

Hackney Ponies. Hackney ponies are Hackneys under 
1432 hands in height. 

Welsh Ponies. Welsh ponies are natives of Wales. 
Having been developed in the rougher districts of that 
country, they are rugged little horses, much like coach 
horses, but smaller. They have considerable speed and 
rather flashy action. Bay is the prevalent color, although 
nearly all solid colors occur. The horses vary in height 
from 123^ hands to 143^2 hands. 

Shetland Ponies. Shetland ponies are natives of a 
group of islands about two hundred miles north of Scot- 
land. The islands are rugged, with no trees and a very 
scanty growth of forage crops. This adverse environ- 
ment is responsible for the small stature of the ponies. 

Shetland ponies should be under forty-two inches 



HORSE PRODUCTION 233 

(103/2 hands) in height, although a height of forty-six 
inches is allowed. 

FEEDING HORSES 

General Suggestions. Regularity should be one of the 
first considerations in feeding horses. The general health, 
condition, and spirits of a horse are greatly influenced by 
regularity in feeding. This is particularly noticeable in 
work horses. Irregular feeding is neither healthful nor 
economical. 

Usually too much hay is fed to work horses. It is the 
common cause of heaves. Twelve pounds of hay a day 
for each thousand pounds of live weight is sufficient under 
average conditions. One-fourth the daily allowance of 
hay should be fed in the morning, a very small portion at 
noon, and the rest at night. Only clean, bright, well- 
cured hay and grain should be fed to horses. They are 
more susceptible to digestive disorders than any other 
class of live stock and should never be fed moldy or 
musty feed. 

The Grain Ration. Corn is an unsatisfactory ration for 
work horses when it is fed with timothy, prairie, cane, 
or kafir hay, especially in hot weather. A combination of 
seven parts of corn, three parts of bran, and one part of 
linseed meal (proportions by weight) is a very satis- 
factory grain ration for either growing or work horses 
when it is fed with timothy, prairie, cane, or kafir hay. 
This combination is cheaper than either corn or oats used 
alone as the grain ration. 

Oats is a better grain ration than corn for work horses, 
especially during hot weather. 

When corn is fed with the proper amount of alfalfa hay 
of the right kind and quality, the ration is as satisfactory 
as one consisting of oats and prairie or timothy hay, and 
reduces the cost from ten to thirty per cent. 



234 



AGRICULTURE 



The amount of grain to be fed depends upon the indi- 
viduahty of the horse and the work it performs. For an 
average horse doing average work, about twelve pounds of 
grain a day for each thousand pounds of live weight may 




Pure-brcd draft mares averaging more than 1800 pounds in weight, used for farm work at the Kansas 
State Agricultural College. 

be used as a standard. The grain ration should be in- 
creased or decreased in proportion to increase or decrease 
in the amount of work performed. 

The Hay Ration. The principal forms of roughage 
used in Kansas for horse feeding are timothy, clover, 
prairie, alfalfa, and sorghum hays. In general, each part 
of the state has a particular form of roughage. Timothy 
and clover are grown in the eastern part, prairie hay in the 
centi'al part, and sorghum hays in the western part, while 
alfalfa is now grown in practically all parts of the state. 
Timothy, prairie, and sorghum hays have practically the 
same feeding values. Clover and alfalfa have similar feed- 
ing values. Alfalfa hay is considered a very valuable feed 
for most classes of live stock, but a strong prejudice exists 
against its use for horses, particularly work horses. If 
alfalfa hay is properly fed, it may be fed to any kind of 
horse. This applies just as strongly to work horses as to 
growing horses. In order, however, to be fed success- 



HORSE PRODUCTION 235 

fully, it must be cut at the proper time, and must be fed 
as a concentrate rather than as a roughage. It is often 
said that the proper time to begin cutting alfalfa hay is 
when the field is about one-tenth in bloom. Cutting at 




A two-year-old Percheron fill.\ 

such a time makes very good hay for cattle, but such hay 
is too "washy" for horses at hard work. To make hay 
suitable for horses at hard work, the alfalfa must be al- 
lowed to get rather mature before cutting. In fact, the 
field should be in full bloom before the mower is started. 
After the hay has been cut at the right time and prop- 
erly cared for, the next consideration is the amount to be 
fed daily. Probably the most important cause of so much 
trouble in feeding alfalfa hay has been overfeeding. 



236 AGRICULTURE 

Experience seems to indicate that one and one-fifth 
pounds of alfalfa hay a day for each one hundred pounds 
of live weight is about the maximum amount to feed work 
horses. For best results some other roughage, such as 
cane, kafir, corn fodder, or prairie hay, should be fed with 
alfalfa hay. 

SOUNDNESS AND UNSOUNDNESS 

A horse, to be of the greatest value, must be sound 
and free from blemishes. Horsemen usually make a dis- 
tinction between unsoundness and blemishes in their ani- 
mals. An unsoundness is usually defined as any disease, 
defect, or condition that actually lessens the usefulness 
of the animal, while a blemish is anything which injures 
the appearance of the animal but does not in any man- 
ner interfere with its usefulness. In some instances, 
great care and good judgment are necessary to distin- 
guish between a blemish and an unsoundness. A wire 
cut, for example, is sometimes only trivial in nature and 
leaves only a scar which passes as a blemish. Again, a 
wire cut may injure a joint, causing permanent stiffness 
or lameness, which would be an unsoundness. Some 
of the more common blemishes are windgalls, scars from 
cuts, capped hocks, and small splints. 

As regards soundness, horses may be divided into three 
classes. 

1. Sound. 

2. Serviceably sound. 

3. Unsound. 

A sound horse is absolutely free from all blemishes and 
unsoundnesses. 

A serviceably sound horse is free from all unsound- 
nesses but may possess one or more blemishes. The blem- 
ishes present do not in any way interfere with the natural 



HORSE PRODUCTION 237 

usefulness of the horse, but may detract more or less 
from its attractiveness and thereby lessen its market value* 

The unsound horse is one which possesses one or more 
of the various diseases or defects that constitute unsound- 
nesses. 

Temporary Unsoundnesses. Temporary unsound- 
nesses may be defined as those diseases or defects which 
diminish the natural usefulness of the animal tempo- 
rarily, such as disease, sprains, cuts, and bruises, but from 
which it will probably recover. 

Permanent Unsoundnesses. Permanent, or chronic, 
unsoundnesses are those that permanently interfere with the 
natural usefulness of the animal so as to make him less ca- 
pable of doing work. The permanent unsoundnesses are 
of greatest importance. They may be divided into: 

1. Those showing a hereditary tendency to develop in 
the offspring, such as bone spavin, stringhalt, and ten- 
dency toward blindness. 

2. Those not showing a hereditary tendency to develop 
in the offspring, such as poll-evil, fistula of the withers, 
and sweeny. 

The Unsound Horse as a Market Animal. In all mar- 
kets there is a demand for sound horses; they always sell 
at a premium. If the producer would make the most of 
his opportunities and secure the greatest profits from the 
breeding of horses, he must produce the kind of horses 
that the markets and the farms demand. 

Many instances might be cited to show how severely 
an unsoundness may affect the value of a horse. Un- 
soundnesses result in a depreciation of from twenty-five 
to seventy-five per cent in the market value of an animal, 
depending upon the class to which it belongs and 
the quality of the horse aside from the unsoundness 



238 



AGRICULTURE 



present. It costs just as much to raise an unsound as a 
sound horse, and it therefore is important that the breeder 
put forth an earnest effort to eradicate the unsoundnesses 
which are the cause of so great a loss of money to the 
horse-breeding industry. 



I 


ja 


li 


^^^^^^^^^1 


|J 


^ 


22 29H 
'.30l| 


m 


tt^ 






J 


*i 


\ 


J 


J 



A horse, bhowiiig the points considered in judging. 



1. Muzzle. 


11. Arm. 




21. Ribs. 






30. Giiskin. 


2. Nostrils. 


12. Elbow. 




22. Bellv. 






31. Hock. 


3. Forehead. 


13. Forearm 




23. Flank. 






32. Hock. 


4. Eyes. 


11. Knee. 




24. Croup. 






33. Cannon. 


5. Throat. 


1.5. Cannon. 




2.5. Tail. 






34. Ankle. 


6. Ears. 


16. Arkle. 




26. Hips. 






35. Pastern 


7. Crest. 


17. Piistern. 




27. Gaskin, 


or 


lower 


36. Foot. 


8. Neck. 


IS. Foot. 




thigh. 








0. Shoulder. 


10. Back. 




23. Quarter and thigh. 




10. Point of shoulder. 


20. Loin, or 


coupling. 


29. Stifle. 









JUDGING HORSES 

The horse may be looked upon as a machine made up 
of many parts, each of which serves a particular purpose. 
When each part of the horse is of the correct size, shape. 



HORSE PRODUCTION 239 

and quality, and all parts work in harmony, we have an 
efficient, serviceable machine, used chiefly for the purpose 
of pulling either light or heavy loads. If one or more of 
the many parts of a horse are not of the correct shape, 
size, or quality, then a weakness exists, and we have a 
less efficient machine. Sometimes the defect of some part 
may be so serious as to make the horse useless for the 
work he should be able to perform. Judging a horse is 
simply the process of making a careful and systematic 
examination of all his parts, noting carefully the shape, 
the size, and the quality of each, and comparing them 
with those adopted as correct by men of experience. 

The Draft Horse. The draft horse, which should 
weigh at least 1600 pounds and be attractive in appear- 
ance, is the great utility horse. 

The head of such a horse should be attractive, lean, 
broad, and large enough to harmonize with the rest 
of the body. The muzzle (1) should be clean; the nos- 
trils (2) large; the eyes (4) bright, large, and expressive; 
the forehead (3) full and broad ; the throat (5) clean, neat, 
wide between the jawbones; the ears (6) well set, medium 
in size. 

The neck (8) should have plenty of length and should 
fit smoothly into the shoulder. The crest (7) should not 
be too heavy in mares and geldings, but should be very 
strong in stallions. 

The shoulder (9) must be long and sloping, fitting 
smoothly into the back. There must be plenty of width 
between the points of the shoulders (10), but the points 
themselves must not be prominent. The arm (11) should 
be full and heavily muscled. 

The front leg should rest square and plumb and be 
well muscled in the forearm (13), with a strong, broad, 
deep, well-supported knee (14). The cannon (15), when 



240 AGRICULTURE 

viewed from the side, should have a broad, flat appear- 
ance, with the tendons standing out plainly and distinctly. 
The ankle (16) must be large, strong, and smooth. The 
pastern (17) should have a slope of approximately forty- 
five degrees, and should have sufficient length to insure 
ample spring when the horse walks or trots. The foot 
(18) should be large, deep, and well-proportioned, the 
toe being about two and one-fourth times the length of 
the heel. The foot should be wide at the heel and should 
have a large, prominent frog and a strong, concave sole. 
The hoof should have a tough, waxy appearance. 

The back (19 and 20) should be short, straight, wide, 
and well-muscled. The coupling (20) should be short, 
wide, and powerfully muscled. 

The barrel, or middle (21, 22, 23), should be deep and 
wide, and the lower line almost level. Such a barrel, or 
middle, results from well-sprung, long ribs and a deep, 
full flank. 

The hips (26) should be wide apart, but smooth and 
not prominent. 

The croup (24) should be long, wide, level, and power- 
fully muscled. The tail should be set high and be well 
carried. 

The quarter and thigh (28) should be long, deep, 
broad, and heavily muscled. 

The hind legs should rest square and plumb, not too 
far out behind or too far under the body. The gaskin, 
or lower thigh, (27) should be strong and well-muscled; 
the hock (31), straight, long, wide, clean, and well-sup- 
ported below; the cannon (33), clean, wide, and flat; the 
ankle (34), smooth and strong; the pastern (35), sloping 
at an angle of about fifty degrees; and the foot (36), of 
good quality, large, and well-proportioned. 

The action should be easy and snappy, rather than 



HORSE PRODUCTION 241 

sluggish or slovenly. The stride should be long, straight, 
and well-balanced. 

Light Horses. Light horses, both harness and saddle 
horses, are, as their name indicates, less massive than 
draft horses. They are slight of build and light of body, 
but must have substance and quality in every part. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How long have horses existed? When was the horse first used 
as a farm animal? For what purposes was it previously used? 

2. Name the principal classes of heavy service horses. Name the 
principal classes of rapid service horses. 

3. Of what country is the Percheron breed a native? What are 
the popular colors for Percheron horses? 

4. Distinguish between a Percheron horse and a French Draft 
horse. 

5. In what respects do Belgian horses differ from Percherons? 

6. Of what country is the Shire horse a native? the Clydesdale? 

7. In what respects do Shire horses differ from Clydesdale 
horses ? 

8. What breed of coach horses is most popular to-day? 

9. What was the origin of the Standard-bred horse? 

10. What do horsemen mean by the term "Thoroughbred"? 

11. Of what value has the Thoroughbred horse been in improv- 
ing our present breeds of horses? 

12. What was the origin of the American Saddle horse? 

13. What is the difference between an unsoundness and a blemish? 

14. Name three hereditary unsoundnesses. What effect does an 
unsoundness have upon a market horse? 

15. How should hay be fed to a work horse? 

16. What cautions should be observed in feeding, alfalfa to 
work horses? 



16 



CHAPTER XXII 

BEEF CATTLE 

Beef production is associated with the best type of 
farming in every country. No other animal makes 
such large and profitable use of roughage and grass as 
does the beef animal; none is so free from disease; none 
requires less shelter or attendance; none can carry its 
carcass to market with as great ease; and none enables 
the farmer to distribute his work so uniformly throughout 
the year. 

The cattlemen of the future must be just as good 
farmers as those who produce grain and hay for market, 
and, in addition, must have the ability and judgment to 
select breeds and to feed animals that can profitably 
reduce the grain and roughage to a more concentrated 
product. If the cattlemen possess this ability, they will 
have four sources of profit; first, growing crops; second, 
feeding crops; third, the use of otherwise waste material, 
such as straw, stover, and damaged hay and grain; fourth, 
increased fertility of the soil and increased yield of grain 
and forage from the use of manure properly employed. 
It frequently happens that the greatest profit comes from 
use of by-products and increase of soil fertility. Careful 
observation of the cattlemen of any community shows 
that they are leaders in all public matters, are financially 
responsible, farm the best land in the community, and are 
regarded as among the best citizens. Counties and com- 
munities noted for their production of beef are noted also 
for their large yields of agricultural crops and for their 
great productive wealth. 

(242) 



BEEF CATTLE 243 

It is almost impossible, under present methods of rental, 
to handle beef cattle profitably on a tenant farm. This is 
due to the fact that the cattle business is one which re- 




A group of fine show steers, each a winner of a first prize in the show season of 1913. 

quires a considerable number of years to develop and a 
definite system of farming to produce the feeds necessary 
for v/inter maintenance. A further reason is that the chief 
profit in cattle farming comes from returning the manure 
to the land, thus increasing the fertility of the soil and the 
yield of crops. When land is rented annually there is no 
incentive to build it up to increase production the follow- 
ing year, when a different renter may be farming it. 

Kansas as a Beef Cattle State. Kansas is celebrated 
for the production of beef cattle of superior merit. This 
is due principally to the large acreage of corn, alfalfa, 
kafir, sweet sorghum, and milo produced annually, and to 
the high nutritive quality and the variety of the grasses 
found in the native pastures of every part of the state. 
Another factor which makes the state especially fitted for 
this business is the usual dryness of the feed lots through- 
out the winter, which enables the cattle to be handled 
with a minimum amount of shelter, and permits them to 
use a large proportion of their feed for increase in weight 
rather than for maintenance. 



244 AGRICULTURE 

THE IDEAL BEEF ANIMAL 

The ideal beef animal is one which will make rapid and 
economical increase in weight when given an abundance 
of feed, which will mature at an early age, and the carcass 
of which, when slaughtered, will be heavy as compared 
with the offal. When the carcass is divided into its 
various parts, there will be found a large proportion of 
meat which sells at a high price, and a small proportion 
of the cheaper cuts. There are several points which indi- 
cate the value of an animal for beef-making purposes. 

The Head. The face should be short and broad be- 
tween the eyes, which should be large, mild, and placid. 
The mouth should be large, and the nostrils large and 
open. The jaws should be heavy and well muscled, en- 
abling the cattle to eat such feeds as ear corn, stalks, and 
other roughage. The ears should be wide apart at the 
base and carried in such a way as to indicate a quiet dis- 
position. The head should be in proportion to the body, 
neither large and coarse nor fine and delicate. These 
points indicate that the animal has a good constitution 
and a large capacity for feed. 

The Neck. The neck should be short, thick, and 
heavily muscled. A long, slim neck indicates an absence 
of heavy, thick muscle throughout the entire body, and 
is usually associated with inferior feeding capacity or a 
delicate constitution. A short neck is desirable because 
the meat from this region is coarse and tough, thus making 
it one of the cheapest cuts of beef. 

The Shoulders. The shoulders and the neck should 
blend so well as to make it difficult to distinguish where 
the neck stops and the shoulders begin. The point of the 
shoulder should not be prominent, but well covered with 
both flesh and fat. The shoulder should be set well into 



BEEF CATTLE 



245 



the body, thus producing a generally smooth appearance. 
The tops of the shoulder blades should be lower than the 
spine, in order that the animal may be rounded out with 
a minimum amount of fat. A coarse, heavy shoulder is 




A beef steer, shnwing the part? ot the animal cuusidered in judging. 



1. Muzzle 

2. Eyes. 

3. Face. 

4. Forehead. 

5. Ears. 

6. Neck. 

7. Shoulder vein. 
S. Shoulder. 

9. Brisket. 



10. Jaw. 

11. Breast. 

12. Dewlap, or heavy 

skin on neck. 

13. Arm. 

14. Shin, 
lo. Leg. 
16. Che.st. 



17. 


Fore flank. 


2,5. 


Rump. 


18. 


Crops. 


26. 


Tail-head. 


19. 


Ribs. 


27. 


Pin bones. 


20. 


Back. 


28. 


Thigh. 


21.- 


Loin. 


29. 


Twist. 


22. 


Hips, or hooks. 


30. 


Hock. 


23. 


Hind flank. 


31. 


Shank. 


24. 


Purse. 


32. 


Tail. 



indicative of coarseness of muscle fiber and of a long and 
expensive feeding period necessary to finish the animal for 
the block. 

The Chest. The chest should be both wide and deep, 
with the breastbone, or brisket, well forward, in order to 
insure ample room for the development of vital organs, 
such as the heart and the lungs. 

The Legs. The legs should be set wide apart, with 



246 AGRICULTURE 

short cannon bones and heavy muschng in the forearm. 
They should be straight, when viewed from either front or 
side. The bone should be ample to permit the animal to 
attain maximum size, as well as straight, hard, and clean, 
indicating strength and quality. The feet should be in 
proportion to the size of the animal, and should have hard, 
dense hoof, to permit the grazing of rough and broken 
land without difficulty. The toes should be close to- 
gether and should point directly forward. 

The Ribs. The ribs should be long, in order to give 
depth to the body; they should be well sprung, to give 
capacity for vital and digestive organs; and they should 
be covered with thick, heavy muscles. The highest- 
priced meat in the fore quarter is found on the upper part 
of the last five ribs. 

The Back. The back should be wide, straight, and 
evenly and heavily covered with muscle, indicating 
superior quality of meat in the carcass. A low back is 
generally weak, being due to the absence of sufficient 
muscle to enable the animal to hold it straight. As the 
price of beef cattle is governed largely by the amount of 
muscle, or lean meat, and the proper covering of fat, it is 
important to have as large a development of muscle as 
possible in the most valuable part of the carcass. 

The Loin. The loin is that part of the body immedi- 
ately in front of the hook bones and behind the last long 
ribs. When the animal is slaughtered, that portion imme- 
diately behind the hook bones is included in the loin. This 
region demands the highest price of any meat in the car- 
cass. The loin should be wide, thick, and of medium 
length. The hook bones should be smooth, and their 
width in proportion to that of the loin and rump. 

The Rump. The rump should be wide, long, and level. 



BEEF CATTLE 247 

without undue prominence of pelvic bones. There should 
be ample width between the hip joints, and the pin bones 
should be set well apart. 

The Thighs. The thighs are the portion of the hind 
legs which produces the round steak. This region should 
be covered with heavy muscles, which should be carried 
well down toward the hocks. These should be straight 
and should stand well apart. The twist where the muscles 
of both hind legs unite should be full and deep. 

The Flank. The hind flank should be well let down, so 
that the underline of the body will be nearly straight, as 
this indicates capacity for food, and, to some extent, 
fattening ability. 

After studying all the parts of the beef animal sepa- 
rately, it is well to notice that the top line and the under- 
line should be straight and nearly parallel to each other; 
that the width should be almost the same through the 
shoulder as through the thighs; that the width just back 
of the top of the shoulders should be the same as that of 
the loin, hips, and rump; that there should be an absence 
of paunchiness and coarseness throughout; that the skin 
should be smooth, clean, mellow and of reasonable thick- 
ness; and that the hair should be bright and clean. 

Fat Cattle. In selecting fat cattle, it should be noticed 
that there is a fullness at the base of the tongue and a 
thickness in the hind flank. The fat should be evenly and 
smoothly deposited over the entire surface of the body, 
with no patches or rolls which must be trimmed from the 
carcass and sold as tallow. 

Breeding Cattle. Bulls for breeding purposes should 
have strong, masculine heads and heavy crests; they 
should be thick through the shoulders. Their mascu- 
linity should not run to undue coarseness. Cows for 



248 



AGRICULTURE 



breeding purposes should be refined about the head, with 
rather long and narrow necks; they should be wide through 
the hips and pelvic regions; they should have large udders, 
well-developed milk veins, and large, well-placed teats. 




Baldoon, a champion Aberdeen Angus bull. 

Breeds. There are four leading breeds of beef cattle: 
Aberdeen Angus, Galloway, Hereford, and Shorthorn. To 
these are sometimes added the Polled Durhams and the 
Red Polls, which have not been so highly specialized for 
the production of beef. All beef breeds have been bred 
and fed for the purpose of producing economically animals 
that will yield a large amount of the best quality of beef in 
proportion to live weight. There are minor differences in 
form and specific differences in breed character. 

The Aberdeen Angus is black, hornless, and noted for 
high quality of carcass. It is especially adapted for the 
production of show steers and for fattening in the corn 
belt. 



BEEF CATTLE 249 

The Galloway is also black and hornless ; it is noted for 
hardy constitution, excellent quality of carcass, and the 
value of the hides for making robes. 




A Galloway steer. First prize-winner and champion, 1013. 

The Hereford is horned and has a red body, with face, 
crest, brisket, underline, and brush of tail white. There is 
more or less white on the legs. The Hereford is noted for 
hardiness, early maturity, and ability to utilize grass and 
roughage. 

The Shorthorn is horned, and may be red, white, roan, 
or any combination of these colors. It is noted for size, 
for quiet disposition, and frequently for ability to produce 
large quantities of milk. In eastern Kansas the Shorthorn 
predominates as the farmer's cow where both milk and 
beef are considered as farm products; the Angus, where 
beef alone is considered. On the ranges, especially in 
western Kansas, Hereford cattle predominate, with Gal- 
loways second in number. 



250 



AGRICULTURE 



THE DIVISIONS OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY 

The production of beef cattle may be separated into 
four more or less distinct divisions. The four divisions are 
breeding pure-bred cattle, producing stockers and feeders, 
grazing cattle, and fattening cattle. 



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Pure-bred cattle are sometimes known as registered 
cattle. They are cattle that have descended from pure 
strains, and have not been mixed or cross-bred for many 
generations. They are usually grown for the production 
of beef and for sale to producers of other kinds of beef 
cattle. They are used by these men for breeding purposes, 
to improve their herds. Stockers and feeders are cattle 
produced by one stockman and sold to another after they 
are partly grown but before they are fit for slaughter. 
They are finally purchased by a feeder, who makes it his 
business to finish them for slaughter. Grazing cattle are 



BEEF CATTLE 251 

young growing cattle not yet ready to be sold as stockers 
and feeders, or they may be mature, thin cattle of plain 
quality, which go to market and are sold as grass-fat cat- 
tle. The grazing business depends for its profit upon 
putting quick, cheap gains on these animals, but usually 
does not attempt to finish them. Fattening cattle are 
those which are put on full feed, so that they may be fully 
fattened and prepared for slaughter. 

Producing Pure-bred Cattle. Raising pure-bred cattle 
is the highest type of beef production, and should be 
pursued on the richest and most productive farms avail- 
able. It requires the investment of large amounts of 
money for a series of years. The best methods of farm- 
ing, feeding, and management of live stock must be 
thoroughly understood and put into practice. Buildings 
and grounds should be kept neat and attractive in order 
to impress customers with the fact that breeding pure- 
bred live stock is both profitable and attractive. 

Excellent pastures must be available for summer graz- 
ing, and the best methods of feeding must be practiced in 
winter in order that the type and form inherited by the 
animal may be developed to the maximum. Poor feeding 
is more frequently the cause of failure on the part of 
breeders than is any other one factor. In addition to 
selecting the most approved types of cattle and feeding 
them successfully, the breeder of pure-bred live stock must 
be a business man and a salesman, so that he can success- 
fully dispose of that which he has produced. It is usually 
wise for the beginner to start with grade or market cattle, 
and after he has met with success, to purchase a few pure- 
breds, thus getting into the business gradually. 

Producing Stockers and Feeders. The production of 
stockers and feeders should be confined to those localities 
where the larger part of the land can not be plowed profit- 



252 



AGRICULTURE 



ably and where grass is the chief crop. They should 
be produced principally on grass in the summer and on 
roughage in the winter, with little or no grain. As the 
western half of the state is peculiarly adapted to the pro- 
duction of grass and roughage, such as kafir and sweet 
sorghum on the uplands, and of alfalfa in the bottoms, 
it is logically an area for producing stockers and feeders. 
Where alfalfa and silage crops can be produced, little or 




A scrub bull. Such animals make the proilu -li m of Krrf iuiprofitable eveu where all oilier cunui- 
tions are favorable. 

no commercial feed is required. When it is impossible to 
grow alfalfa, protein should be supplied in the form of 
cottonseed products, bran, or linseed meal. In this kind of 
farming the practice of selling calves at weaning time is 
growing in favor rapidly, especially where the grazing 
area is limited and shelter is not available. When there is 
more grass or other feed than can be utilized by the cows, 
the calves may be held on the farm and marketed as feed 
ers when either yearlings or two-year-olds. 



BEEF CATTLE 253 

It is most important that cattle of the best beef type be 
used in producing either stockers or feeders, as the chief 
profit comes, as in breeding pure-bred cattle, from pro- 
ducing those of superior merit, for which there is always a 
keen demand and a high hundredweight value. It is ex- 
tremely important that the herd of cattle used for this pur- 
pose be uniform in type, color, size, breeding, and quality, 
as buyers of feeders prefer cattle as neai'ly alike as pos- 
sible. They should have large feeding capacity and should 
show promise of developing into ideal fat cattle. 

Grazing Cattle. As a general rule, the business of 
grazing cattle is followed in those parts of the state where 
the area of land under cultivation is very small as com- 
pared with that which must necessarily be kept in grass. 
The cattle are rarely produced in the grazing regions, but 
are shipped in by the carload or train load about the first 
of May and allowed to graze until they are fat enough to 
find a favorable market as grass-fat cattle. Steers which 
are three years old or more, and are very thin in the spring, 
make much larger gains at pasture than younger or fatter 
cattle. It frequently happens, however, that fleshy cattle 
can be shipped from grass earlier in the year, thus avoid- 
ing extreme heat, annoyance from flies, shortage of water, 
or an extremely heavy run of cattle on the market, which 
might more than overcome the larger gains which might be 
made by longer grazing. Not so much attention is paid to 
quality or breeding in purchasing grass cattle as in the 
breeding of pure-bred cattle or stockers and feeders, be- 
cause the owners are interested in increasing the value of 
the animals by fattening rather than in the final price to 
the hundredweight. Therefore the cattle selected to be 
fattened at pasture are usually older, coarser, and plainer 
than those which are selected to be fattened in the feed 
lot. 



254 AGRICULTURE 

Fattening Cattle. Fattening cattle has proved profit- 
able in those parts of the state in which corn is the leading 
crop and in which the area devoted to permanent pasture 
is relatively small. The age and the class of cattle selected 
for the feed lot are dependent upon the experience of the 
feeder, the season of the year, the kinds of feed available, 
and the probable demand for cattle when fat. Young and 
thin cattle make cheaper gains in the feed lot than older 
ones, but as they use a large proportion of their feed for 
growth they require a longer feeding period to get fat. In 
fattening calves it is necessary to secure those which have 
the best possible breeding and quality, being short-legged, 
blocky, broad, and deep-bodied, otherwise they will use 
nearly all their feed for growth and therefore will require 
a long time to fatten. It will require from eight to nine 
months from the time calves are weaned to make them 
prime, even on full feeding. An excellent daily ration for 
each animal consists of ten pounds of silage, five pounds of 
alfalfa hay, one pound of linseed or cottonseed cake, and 
all the corn it will eat. Older cattle will eat more rough- 
age in proportion to the grain, and hence are selected for 
feeding where roughage is available but corn relatively 
scarce. They will also fatten in less time. 

It is necessary to improve the ration as the cattle be- 
come fatter, if satisfactory gains are to be secured. In 
farm practice it is customary to start the cattle on rough- 
age, such as silage and hay and fodder, with about six 
pounds of corn daily to a thousand pounds of live weight, 
and to increase the amount of corn as the cattle get fatter, 
thus making a very short full-feeding period. 

In handling show steers it is necessary to improve the 
ration further by grinding the grain, cutting the hay, add- 
ing a greater variety of feeds, and doing everything pos- 
sible to keep u.p the appetite of the animals. Sometimes 



BEEF CATTLE 



255 



barley is boiled and fed at the rate of one gallon a day; 
sugar or molasses is mixed with the grain; fans and win- 
dow screens are used to keep flies off and to reduce the 
heat. Every art known to the feeder is utilized when an 
exceptional animal is to be developed. 




King Ellsworth, a pure-bred Aberdeen An^us steer, grand champion of all breeds. International 
Live Stock Show, 1909. 

It rarely happens that cattle are bred, fed, and marketed 
from the same farm. This fact results in keen business 
competition between buyers and sellers of breeding cattle, 
thin cattle and fat cattle requiring a special amount of 
business ability on the part of the man who is to be suc- 
cessful. If, however, he has the ability to follow the cattle 
business, a farmer finds it one of the most pleasant and 
profitable of all lines of farming. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe a beef animal. Why should the body be wide and 
deep? 

2. What place do beef cattle have in the general system of farm- 
ing in your locality? If cattle have no place, why? 



256 AGRICULTURE 

3. Under what conditions is the cattle business more important 
than crop farming? 

4. What breed or breeds of beef cattle are kept in your locality? 

5. Under what conditions is it profitable to keep a breeding herd 
and raise stockers or feeders? 

6. Under what conditions are cattle fattened and' finished for 
market? 

7. Is it always profitable to finish feeders in the region where 
they were raised? Why? 

8. What would be the advantage of raising your own feeders? 

9. Why do not more people handle pure-bred cattle? 

10. What method of handling beef cattle is followed in your 
locality? 

11. Give the advantages of this method. Are there any disad- 
vantages? 

12. What are the chief roughage feeds produced in your part of 
the state? What is their value as feed for cattle? 

13. How would you fatten two-year-old steers? 

14. How does alfalfa rank as feed for calves? Why? How does 
silage rank as feed for cattle? Why? 

15. Why do most cattlemen feed some cottonseed cake, cotton- 
seed meal, or linseed meal? 

16. Discuss briefly the value of beef cattle on the farm. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
HOGS 

Hogs are known to have existed in Europe, Asia, and 
Africa since the very earliest historic times. The hogs of 
ancient days were wild, ferocious animals, that could run 
very fast. They had comparatively small bodies and very 
large heads. The wild hogs grew very slowly, and often 
lived to be twenty-five or thirty years of age. They usually 
produced only one litter of pigs a year. The small pigs 
were not weaned until they were four or five months old, 
and the mother often protected them from wild animals 
until they were two or three years of age. 

There seem to have been two different types of wild 
hog from which modern breeds of hogs have descended. 
One type was found in northern and central Europe and 
northern Asia. The other type inhabited Africa and the 
southern part of Asia. These southern wild hogs were 
smaller, fatter, thinner-skinned, possessed more quality, 
matured earlier, and were not so wild and ferocious as 
the northern hogs. It is generally supposed that these two 
types originated from the same ancestry, and that the 
differences in them were brought about by environment. 

Types of Hogs. Wild hogs were caught and domesti- 
cated, especially by the farmers of Great Britain. In 
modern times, two principal types were derived from 
these hogs. Some farmers preferred lean hogs from which 
good bacon could be made, while other farmers preferred 
fat hogs from which they could secure lard and oil. This 

(257) 



258 



AGRICULTURE 



resulted in the development of two distinct types of hog; 

namely, the thin, or bacon, hog, and the fat, or lard, hog. 

The Bacon Hog. The bacon hog has been developed 

and is raised most extensively in Great Britain, Denmark, 




A typical bacon hog. Contrast this hog with the animals ia the followmg picture. 

and Canada. In these countries the principal feed for 
hogs consists of barley, oats, peas, rye, root crops, and 
wheat. These feeds and the exercise obtained in roaming 
over pastures tend to produce the best bacon hogs. The 
most desirable weight of the bacon hog is from 160 to 200 
pounds. Very few bacon hogs are raised in Kansas, but 
in New England, the South, and the far West this type is 
very common. 

The Lard Hog. The lard hog has been developed in 
that part of the United States where corn is plentiful. 
This type of hog is noted for its compact, deep, smooth, 
body, its rapidity of growth, and its ability to fatten. 
The lard hog, to be of greatest value, should be fattened 
to a high degree. It is because the lard hog should be 



HOGS 259 

very fat that it can be produced profitably only where 
corn is plentiful. The most common breeds of hogs in 
Kansas belong to the fat, or lard, type. 




A group of prize-winning Poland Chinas, examples of the lard hog. 

Market Types of Hogs. Hogs that are sold on the 
market for meat are classified, according to their condition, 
form, and quality, into five principal classes. These classes 
are prime hogs, butcher hogs, light hogs, packing hogs, 
and miscellaneous hogs. 

Prime Hogs. The prime heavy hog is one weighing 
from 350 to 500 pounds, and very fat. To belong to this 
class a hog must have excellent finish and exceptionally 
high quality. 

Butcher Hogs. Butcher hogs are hogs which weigh from 
180 to 350 pounds, and are chiefly barrows. It is possible 
to have a few good sows in a drove of butcher hogs with- 
out detracting from the value of the drove. About twenty- 
five per cent of the hogs that reach the central stock 
markets belong to this class. Butcher hogs range from six 
months to a year old. The hogs sold at the age of six 
months are usually called light butchers, while those sold 
at the age of one year are known as heavy butchers. The 
carcasses of these hogs are not cured to ham and bacon, 
but are sold to butchers and retailed as fresh meat. This 
is the reason they are called butcher hogs. 



260 AGRICULTURE 

Packing Hogs. Packing hogs are so called because they 
are chiefly used by the packing houses for the purpose of 
making cured or salt meat. This class of hogs, as a whole, 
lacks somewhat the quality and finish of the butcher hogs. 
In this class are fine old brood sows and all other hogs that 
are heavy enough but not good enough for the butcher hog 
class, although the very poorest hogs would be ranked, 
not as packing hogs, but as miscellaneous hogs. About 
forty per cent of the hogs that reach the central markets 
are sold as packing hogs. They are nine months old and 
older. Packing hogs are divided into heavy, medium, and 
mixed classes, and each of these classes is further sub- 
divided into good, common, and inferior. 

Light Hogs. Light hogs include all hogs weighing be- 
tween 125 and 220 pounds. About fifteen per cent of the 
hogs that reach the market belong to this class. These 
hogs are usually from five to eight months old when 
marketed. The light hogs are divided into bacon hogs, 
which are used principally for the production of bacon; 
light mixed hogs, which represent hogs of the light butcher 
weights; and light light hogs, which weigh from 125 to 250 
pounds, and represent the lightest of the class. 

Miscellaneous Hogs. Miscellaneous hogs include prac- 
tically all that are not suitable for the other classes. 

Breeds of Hogs. A number of breeds of hogs are raised 
in the United States to-day. The breeds of the most im- 
portance are the Duroc-Jersey, the Poland China, the 
Berkshire, the Chester White, the Hampshire, the large 
Yorkshire, and the Tamworth. 

The Duroc-Jersey. The Duroc-Jersey is an American 
breed. It is red in color. Red hogs have existed in the 
United States for a great many years. From uncertain 
origin, there was developed in New Jersey a large breed of 



HOGS 261 

red hogs, which became known as the Jersey Red. Another 
breed of hogs, known as the Duroc, originated in Saratoga 
county. New York. At a later date the Jersey Reds and 
the Durocs were brought together, and the two breeds 
were blended into one under the name of Jersey Red. 
About 1883 this name was changed to Duroc-Jersey. The 
improvement of the Duroc-Jersey breed began when the 
Jersey Red and the Duroc hogs were united. The breed 




A champioD iJuroc-Jersey sow 

improved rapidly. It is now Known to be very hardy, and 
is noted for its large litters. It is an early maturing breed 
which crosses well with other breeds of hogs. The Duroc- 
Jersey, when crossed with grade hogs or hogs of no par- 
ticular breed, is especially noted for its ability to improve 
the offspring. 

Mature males of the Duroc-Jersey breed weigh 600 
pounds or more, while mature females weigh 500 pounds 



262 AGRICULTURE 

or more. The snout of the Duroc-Jersey is of medium 
length. The face is shghtly dished or straight. The ear 
droops about two-thirds of its length. The body is noted 
for its thickness and depth. The color of a Duroc-Jersey 
varies from light yellow to dark red, but cherry color is the 
most desirable. A few black spots on the under parts and 
legs do not disqualify a hog, but are objectionable mark- 
ings. 

The Poland China. The Poland China hog is strictly 
of American origin. The breed originated in the Miami 
valley of Ohio. The foundation of this breed was prob- 
ably the common stock of the country, which was more or 
less mixed in breeding. In the early days these hogs were 
given various names, as Butler County, Warren County, 
Miami Valley, Poland, and China. The name Poland 
China was officially adopted in 1872. The Poland China 
has been developed especially to meet the market demand 
for a lard hog. Hogs of this breed have been bred for early 
maturity for generations, and are noted for ability to 
produce a finished fat carcass at an early age. The Poland 
China is valuable for crossing with hogs that lack the 
tendency to fatten easily. 

The face of the Poland China hog is practically straight 
and the jowl full and heavy. The ears are fine, with the tip 
drooped. The color of the hog is black, with white on the 
face, the feet, and the tip of the tail. 

The Berkshire. The Berkshire is one of the oldest 
breeds of improved swine. Its original home was in Berk- 
shire and Wiltshire, in southern England. This breed of 
hogs has been distributed all over the world. It was first 
introduced into the United States in 1823. Certain types 
of the Berkshire are exceptionally good bacon hogs, but 
in this country, especially through the part of the United 



HOGS 263 

States were corn is plentiful, Berkshires are classed as 
lard hogs. The breed is noted for its hardiness, vitality, 
and ability to fatten evenly and smoothly. 

The Berkshires are symmetrical in form and stylish 




A group of puri-brtd BtrktLir ^ilt^ Tl - p'l up of pilt^ hrnueht a hiRhcra\crjfc price at sale than 
au> other gilts sold lu the We&t the same year. 

in carriage. The face is dished, the snout and the neck 
are short, and the ears are erect. A hog of this breed is 
black with white markings on the face. There are also 
white markings on each foot and on the tip of the tail. 

The Chester White. The Chester White originated in 
Chester county, Pennsylvania. Hogs of this breed are 
very large, and compare favorably with hogs of other 
breeds in ability to mature early and to produce meat 
economically. The Chester White does well upon pasture, 
but, on account of the white skin, often has skin trouble 
when exposed to unfavorable weather. 

The face of the Chester White is slightly dished, and the 
snout is usually a little longer than the snout of the Poland 
China. The color is white throughout, and any black 
disqualifies the animal for this breed. The hair is some- 
times wa\'y and curly. 

The Hampshire. The Hampshire hog originated in 
Hampshire, England, and was brought to Massachusetts 



264 



AGRICULTURE 



about 1895. At that time the breed was known as the 
thin-rind, but in 1904 the name was changed to the Hamp- 
shire. The Hampshire is a very active, hardy breed, and 




A Hampstiire sow. 

is especially noted for large litters of pigs. This breed was 
originally a bacon type, but has been gradually changed 
to the lard type since coming to this country. 

The face of the Hampshire is straight, with ears which 
are inclined forward and outward, but which do not droop 
like those of the Poland China. The back is strong, the 
ribs are well sprung, and the sides are deep. The color is 
black except for a white belt which encircles the body. 

The Large Yorkshire. The Large Yorkshire is of English 
origin. It descended from a race of large, coarse-boned, 
white hogs common in Yorkshire, England. This breed of 
hogs belongs to the bacon type, and is valued for the 



HOGS 265 

amount and the quality of bacon produced by it. Be- 
cause of the tendency of the skin to get "scalded " by the 
sun, the Large Yorkshire seems ill adapted to localities 
which have an especially hot climate. 

The face of the Large Yorkshire is moderately dished^ 
with snout straight and of medium length. The ears are 
large and erect, but are sometimes inclined forward. The 
color is white. 

The Tamworth. The Tamworth originated in central 
England. This breed belongs to the bacon type of hogs, 
and it has often been asserted that the Tamworth pro- 
duces a better quality of bacon than any other breed of 
hogs. The Tamworth is a very large, rather long hog. 
The snout is straight, and there is scarcely any dish to the 
face. The ears are large and are carried erect. The Tam- 
worth should have golden red hair, free from all black 
color. The hair sometimes changes to a chestnut color as 
the hog grows older. 

FEEDING HOGS 

Hogs require as good care and careful feeding as any 
class of live stock. The successful feeder must know the 
value of different feeds and the method of combining. these 
feeds properly to secure best results. Many farmers 
waste large amounts of feed every year by improper 
and careless feeding. 

One of the first considerations in hog feeding is not to 
overfeed. It is better that the hog be a little underfed 
than overfed. Fresh feed should not be thrown into the 
hog trough if the trough contains any old or sour feed 
left from previous feedings. The hog should be fed at 
frequent and regular intervals. Drinking water should 
be provided so that the hog has access to it at all times. 

Kinds of Feed. Corn is one of the richest and most 



266 AGRICULTURE 

palatable feeds for hogs, and, because of the ease with 
which it can be grown and the high yield obtained in this 
part of the country, it has become the principal grain 
used in feeding hogs. Because corn is usually a cheap 
food for hogs, it should be fed in as large quantities as 
possible ; but it should be remembered that corn is deficient 
in certain nutrients, such as protein and calcium, and 
that, when fed this grain alone, the hog does not develop 
the bone and muscle that it should. It is therefore best to 
feed with corn other materials, such as tankage, meat meal, 
wheat middlings, oil meal, skim milk, and alfalfa, that will 
furnish the constituents in which corn is deficient. Brood 
sows or young pigs, running in pasture, will thrive better 
if fed alfalfa hay than if given corn only. 

Sanitation. Cleanliness is especially important in rais- 
ing hogs, and they will benefit from clean, well-drained, 
well-aired quarters as much as any other kind of domestic 
animal. Their quarters should be cleaned regularly, and 
no stagnant mudholes should be allowed to form. In 
winter the hogs should be protected and should not be 
exposed to drafts; but, on the other hand, they should not 
be kept too warm. Drafts or a sudden change from a 
close, hot shed to the cold outer air frequently causes in- 
fluenza. 

Cholera and other contagious or infectious diseases are 
spread by running water to which diseased hogs have 
access, or by dogs that eat parts of diseased carcasses and 
carry disease to other farms. Every farmer should burn 
or bury deep all hogs which die, regardless of the cause. 
If he fails to obey the law in this respect, he should be 
prosecuted. When any hog disease is prevalent in a 
community, no hogs should be allowed to run at large, no 
dogs or stock should be allowed to go from farm to farm 



HOGS 267 

if they can get to the hog pens, nor should men under any 
circumstances visit a yard containing a sick hog and then 
go to another farm without careful disinfection of their 
shoes. Lime or mixtures of carbolic acid and water used 
about the pens and sheds lessen the danger of disease. 
Deep plowing of the lots is also a good practice. 

JUDGING THE LARD HOG 

General Appearance. In judging a hog, weight, 
form, quality, and covering should be considered under 
general appearance. The hog that weighs from two 
hundred to three hundred pounds brings the highest 
price on the market. The standard weight for any 
given age comprises an average daily gain of one pound 
from birth. 

Tho general form of the lard hog should be compact, 
with the body deep, broad, smooth, and symmetrical. 
The hog should have the larger part of its weight in the 
region of the valuable cuts; that is, along the back, loin, 
and hams. Its underline should be straight. It should 
have smooth shoulders, wide, thick back, and deep, full 
hams and sides. 

Quality. Quality is denoted by fine hair, free from 
bristles; smooth, clean skin; clean bones; and a general 
smoothness of conformation. The skin should be free 
from wrinkles. 

Condition. There should be a deep, even covering of 
flesh, especially in the regions of the valuable cuts. The 
finish should be even, mellow to the touch, and free from 
wrinkles and lumps. A hog that is wrinkled and lumpy 
yields a carcass that is rough and uneven. Condition 
determines the selling value of the hog. Condition is 
indicated by the general plumpness of form, the depth of 
covering over back and loin, the amount of fat at the 



268 AGRICULTURE 

root of the tail, and the fullness and thickness of the sides 
and jowl. 

The Parts of the Hog. The snout (1) should be me- 
dium in length and not coarse. The eyes (2) should be 



A Poland Cliina sow, marked to show the parts of the hog. 

mild, bright, and not sunken or obscured by wrinkles 
and fat. The face (3) should be short, with the cheeks 
full. The ears (4) should be fine, of medium size, 
and attached neatly. The jowl (5) should be full, firm, 
neat, and free from flabbiness. 

The neck (6) should be short and should possess suffi- 
cient width and depth to swell smoothly into the shoulder 
vein and pass back without any noticeable depression. 
The shoulders (7) should be long, full, and level on top. 
They should not be too heavy or coarse, as they constitute 
a comparatively cheap cut. Coarseness here, moreover, 
indicates coarseness of fiber. The breast (8) should be 
full, smooth, and neat. 

The fore legs (9) should be straight, short, and strong, 
and placed wide apart. The pasterns should be strong, and 



HOGS 269 

not broken down so that the animal walks on its dewclaws ; 
the feet should be of medium size. 

The chest (10) should be deep and wide, with a large 
heart girth, as this insures constitutional vigor and vitality. 

The sides (11) should be deep, thick, and as long as 
possible consistent with strength of back. The ribs should 
be well arched and should continue low down, giving great 
feeding capacity. The underline should run straight from 
front flank to rear flank, giving the side an even width. 
The sides should be free from wrinkles and creases, as these 
indicate uneven flesh, poor in quality. 

The back (12) should be broad, strongly arched, and 
thickly and evenly covered with flesh. "Fish back," low 
back, and lowness just back of the shoulders are very 
objectionable. 

The loin (13) should be broad, strong, full, and thickly 
fleshed. The width of the loin should be such as to sustain 
the width of the back. 

The under part (14) should be straight, smooth, and 
firm, with width in proportion to the size of the hog. 

The hips (15) should be wide apart and smooth. They 
should be as wide as the body, and smoothly covered with 
flesh. The rump (16) should be long, level, wide, and 
evenly fleshed. Narrow, peaked rumps mean thin hams, 
which do not sell well on the market. The width should 
be carried back proportionately to the back. The hams 
(17) should be heavily fleshed, full, firm, deep, and wide, 
and should be carried well down to the hocks. Firm- 
ness indicates high quality of meat. 

The hind legs should be straight, short, strong, with 
bone clean and hard; pasterns short, strong, and upright; 
feet of medium size. The most common defect of the 
hind leg is a cramped condition of the hock. The hog's 



270 AGRICULTURE 

legs should be well set so that he does not walk with an 
awkward gait. 

JUDGING BREEDING HOGS 

The brood sow that regularly produces large, strong, 
uniform litters of pigs is the most valuable. All breeds of 
lard hogs are more or less similar. Breed differences are 
due more to variations in color, set of ear, and dish of face. 

In judging brood sows, the size is very important. In 
form the sow will be longer. She should have a deep, 
broad and roomy body, with strong constitution and great 
vitality. Other important points in choosing the brood 
sow are the feet and legs, quality, disposition, and femininity 
as indicated by refinement about the head and face. 

MEAT ON THE FARM 

The farmer, of all persons, should have a good supply of 
the best kind of meats for his own table. He should be 
independent of the butcher; that is, he should slaughter 
his own animals and cure his own meats. Butchering 
may be done when work is slack, and means a very great 
saving to the farmer. It should be a part of the regular 
work on each farm. 

Slaughtering. The animal to be slaughtered should be 
young and fat, gaining in flesh and healthy. The animal 
should not be fed for at least twenty-four hours before 
being slaughtered. It should be given plenty of water to 
drink and should be kept quiet, in order that its tem- 
pearature may not rise above normal. An increase of two 
or more degrees will result in a gluey, sticky meat which 
will not keep well. The animal should never be struck 
with any object that will bruise the flesh, as bruising tends 
to form a blood clot and the bruised portion will have to 
be discarded. The animal should be stuck in such a man- 
ner that its system will be thoroughly drained of blood. 



272 AGRICULTURE 

Scalding. Where only a few hogs are slaughtered a 
barrel makes a very good vessel in which to scald them. 
If the hog is a large one it may be covered with blankets or 
sacks and the water poured over these blankets. The water 
should be heated to between 170 and 180 degrees Fahren- 
heit. Some wood ashes, lye, or soda should be put into 
the water to loosen the dirt and scurf. 

Cutting. Never cut a carcass of any kind until it has 
been thoroughly cooled throughout. Lay the hog on a 
block or a table and remove the head at the atlas joint, or 
about two inches behind the ears. Remove the shoulder 
between the fourth and fifth ribs. Cut out the fore ribs 
and finish trimming the shoulder. Cut the hams off about 
two inches in front of the pelvic arch, and split the car- 
cass in the middle of the backbone. Trim the meat. 
The middle piece should be split down the middle, the 
ribs and loin taken out, and the sides cut into strips for 
bacon. 

Curing. Meat should be thoroughly cooled before being 
cured. If the animal heat is not all out of the carcass it 
will not take the cure evenly and may spoil afterwards. 
The meat to be cured should be placed in good, clean 
vessels in a cool place, where the temperature is even. 

There are two methods of curing meat in common use, 
both of which are good. These are the dry cure and the 
brine cure. The farmer should choose the one he likes 
best, though it is true that the highest quality and the 
richest flavor will be produced through the use of the dry 
cure. Brine destroys some of the soluble protein in the 
meat, and thus removes some of the flavor and food value. 
Any piece of meat which has been soaked, or even wet, is 
never again so good as it was. 

Dry Curing. Two of the commoner methods of dry 
curing are given here. 



HOGS 273 

For one thousand pounds of meat, use the following 
compound: forty pounds of common salt; ten pounds of 
New Orleans sugar; four pounds of ground black pepper; 
one and one-half pounds of saltpeter; one-half pound of 
Cayenne pepper. Weigh the meat and use a proportionate 
part of the compound. After the ingredients have been 
properly mixed, use half of the amount for rubbing into the 
meat. Place the meat in a dry, cool place. Allow it to 
remain for two weeks, then rub on the remainder of the 
cure and let the meat lie for six weeks, when it is ready to 
be smoked. 

A slightly simpler dry cure employs to each one hundred 
pounds of meat five pounds of salt, two pounds of brown 
sugar, and two ounces of saltpeter. Mix the ingredients 
thoroughly, and rub each piece of meat once a day with 
one-third of the mixture. Do this on three successive days. 
Keep the meat in a cool, damp place. 

Liquid, or Brine, Cures. For a sugar cure, rub each 
piece of meat with salt and allow it to drain over night, 
then pack it closely in a barrel, with the hams and the 
shoulders at the bottom and the strips of bacon on top. 
To each one hundred pounds of meat use eight pounds of 
salt, two pounds of brown sugar, and two ounces of salt- 
peter. Dissolve these ingredients in four gallons of water, 
and cover the meat with the brine. It is best to boil the 
brine and let it cool before using it. The bacon strips 
should remain in the brine from four to six weeks; the 
hams and the shoulders, from six to eight weeks. 

Plain Salt Pork. To obtain plain salt pork, rub each 
piece of meat with common salt, pack the pieces closely in 
a barrel, and let them stand over night. To one hundred 
pounds of meat use ten pounds of salt and two ounces of 
saltpeter dissolved in four gallons of boiling water. When 

18 



274 AGRICULTURE 

the brine is cold pour it over the meat and weight the meat 
down. The meat should be kept in the brine until it is used. 

Sugar-cured hams and bacon are the most satisfactory 
under ordinary farm conditions, and, when properly cured 
and smoked, will keep through a hot summer. 

Smoking Meats. Where a large amount of meat is to 
be smoked a good house should be built. The essentials 
in building a smokehouse are that it be high enough to 
keep the meat a good distance from the fire, and that it 
be well ventilated, and should be dark, so as to keep out 
insects. 

Hard woods, such as hickory, maple, oak, and apple 
are the best fuels to use in smoking meats. Soft, resinous 
wood imparts a bad flavor to the meat. Clean corncobs 
make a very good fuel where hard wood can not be ob- 
tained. The meat should be smoked with a smouldering 
fire and with as little heat as possible. 

Smoking should be done slowly, and should occupy 
from three to six weeks, with very little heat. Slow smok- 
ing gives a very delicate flavor. After smoking is finished, 
wrap each piece of meat in paper, put it into an unwashed 
flour sack, and hang it in a dry place. 

Keeping Smoked Meats. Smoked meats may be kept 
in the smokehouse; or a dry, cool cellar with free cir- 
culation will be a satisfactory place for smoked meats at 
all seasons if it is kept dark. 

If the meat is to be kept for some time, the pieces should 
be wrapped separately in paper and put in unwashed flour 
sacks or paper sacks, or covered with canvas, or buried in 
a grain bin, in order to insure a uniform temperature and 
to keep away insects. A coat of ground pepper iiibbed 
into the meat before it is wrapped will increase the keeping 
qualities and will not be disagreeable to the taste. 



HOGS 275 

Hams cured in this manner may be kept under ordinary 
farm conditions throughout the summer, and indeed for 
several years. The shoulders and bacons should be eaten 
early in the season; the hams should be kept for harvest 
and fall. It is a good plan to keep one or two choice hams 
for the Christmas season. 

Pork Sausage. Pork sausage should be made only from 
clean, fresh pork. To each three pounds of lean pork add 
one pound of fat; in grinding the meat, mix the fat and the 
lean together. After the meat is run through the grinder 
spread it out thinly, and season it to the taste. One ounce 
of fine salt to each four pounds of meat produces satis- 
factory results. Black pepper and sage may be added to 
suit the taste. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the lard type of hog; the bacon type. How do they 
differ from each other? 

2. Name the market classes of hogs. How do these classes 
differ? Look up in a daily paper the prices paid for the various 
market classes of hogs, and discuss the matter in class. 

3. What breeds of hogs are raised in your part of the state? 

4. Why is the Duroc-Jersey popular? the Poland China? the 
Berkshire? 

5. Why is corn a good hog feed? Why should hogs have some 
feed besides corn? 

6. How and why may alfalfa be used as a feed for hogs? 

7. Why do we feed tankage and shorts to pigs? 

8. Why is protein essential in the ration of growing pigs? of 
fattening pigs? 

9. How is hog cholera spread? What method of prevention 
may be used if a farmer does not have cholera in his herd? 

10. Why should the farmer do his own butchering? 

11. What kind of animal should be slaughtered? 

12. Discuss briefly a dry cure; a brine cure. 

13. When should meat be smoked? How should you smoke 
meat? Discuss. 

14. How should smoked meat be stored? 



CHAPTER XXIV 



SHEEP 



The sheep was one of the first animals to be domesti- 
cated by man. Its value as a producer of both food and 
clothing was recognized by man in the first stages of 
civilization. Its flesh was used for food and its skin for 
clothing by man as long ago as we can trace his history. 
As man advanced in civilization the wool was cut from 
the sheep's skin and woven into cloth. 

Sheep are well adapted to rough hillside pastures where 
feed is not abundant enough for cattle or horses. Their 
habit of moving about while feeding enables them to find 
widely scattered bunches of grass and young shoots of 
trees and shrubs, of which they are very fond. In countries 




Sheep need shade. 

where sheep are kept in large numbers they are driven 
from one pasture to another and allowed to feed as they 
go. They are cared for by a shepherd, who usually has 
one or more dogs to assist. In winter, when feed is scarce 
and the weather is cold, the shepherd must work hard to 

(276) 



SHEEP 



277 



care for his flock. In England, where the farms are small 
and many sheep are raised, they are kept in small flocks 
and pastured on rape and clover during the summer and 
fed on cabbage and turnips during the winter. The sheep 
which are found on the farms in the United States have 
nearly all descended from those originated in England. 
Those found on the large ranges in the Rocky Mountain 
region have descended from sheep originated in Spain and 
France. Those kept on the farms are raised for both wool 




Representatives of (1) medium-wooled, (2) loug-wooLii, aud v3) £ 



d breeds. 



and mutton, while those on the ranges are kept chiefly for 
the production of wool. The English breeds of sheep are 
not adapted to the range, because their fleece is not dense 
and oily enough to keep out snow and water, and they 
have been kept in small flocks for so many generations 
that they have lost the instinct of flocking together when 
feeding, and hence are very difficult to herd. The sheep 
from France and Spain have a dense, oily fleece which 
protects them, and they have been raised in large flocks 
so long that several thousand of them will flock together. 



278 AGRICULTURE 

These two characteristics .make them especially adapted 
to living on the range. 

The Breeds of Sheep. All sheep may be divided into 
three classes, according to their wool: the fine-wooled 
breeds, the medium-wooled breeds, and the long-wooled 
breeds. 

Fine-wooled Breeds. The fine-wooled breeds are kept 
chiefly for the production of wool. The skin of a sheep of 
this class has folds or wrinkles, which give more surface 
for wool to grow on, and its body is rough and angular. 
The breeds which are classed as fine-wooled are the Ameri- 
can merino, and the Rambouillet, or French merino. The 
American merino has descended from sheep which were 
imported from Spain in the early part of the nineteenth 
century. It is called the American merino because it has 
been improved so much since the first sheep were im- 
ported that it is almost entirely different. The breed is 
divided into three classes. Members of class 1 have 
folds of loose skin all over the body, and their wool is 
denser and finer, and contains more yolk, or oil, than that 
of the others. Members of class 2 have fewer folds 
and a longer, less dense wool. Members of class 3 
have very few folds, and these only on the neck, and are 
smoother-bodied, producing less wool and more mutton 
than the other classes. The French merino, or Ram- 
bouillet, sheep are larger than the American merinos. They 
were imported to this country from France, and have be- 
come very popular in the western states, where sheep are 
raised on the ranges. They produce a large quantitj^ of 
fine wool and are fair producers of mutton. The rams of 
all the merino breeds have horns; the ewes are hornless. 
Medium-wooled Breeds. The leading breeds of the 
medium-wooled class are the Shropshire, the Hampshire, 
the Oxford, the Southdown, the Dorset, and the Cheviot. 



SHEEP 279 

The fii'st four of these breeds are often called Downs 
breeds, because they originated in the Downs, the chalk 
uplands of southern England. Each breed is named for 
the part of the country where it was developed. 

The Shropshire has dark brown face and legs, and its 
face is covered with wool well down to the nose. The ears 
are small and erect, and the head is set high, giving the 
animal a pleasing appearance. The body is broad, and is 
set on short, strong legs. The Shropshire ranks high as 
a mutton producer, and the wool is of good quality. A 
Shropshire ram weighs 225 pounds, and a ewe 160 pounds. 
Neither the rams nor the ewes have horns. 

The Hampshire may be distinguished from the other 
Downs breeds by its black face and legs, and by its large 
ears, which stand nearly straight out from the head. The 
Hampshire is a good producer of both wool and mutton. 
The lambs grow rapidly and are usually heavier than 
Shropshire lambs of the same age. The wool is not of so 
good quality as that of the Shropshire. 

The Oxford is the largest of the Downs breeds. The 
face and legs are dark brown in color and are not so well 
covered with wool as are those of the Shropshire. 

The Southdown is the smallest of the Downs breeds, 
and the best for mutton. The face and the legs are brown 
or mouse-colored, and are not well covered with wool. 
The ears are small, and the head is carried erect, giving 
the sheep a very attractive appearance. 

The face and the legs of the Dorset are white. Both 
rams and ewes have horns. Dorset sheep are very prolific, 
and often produce lambs twice a year. The ewes are heavy 
milkers, and the lambs grow very rapidly. 

The Cheviot is a small breed, with slightly longer and 
less dense fleece than the other medium- wooled breeds. 
The head is almost free from wool and is white. The ears 



k:80 AGRICULTURE 

are carried erect, causing the sheep to look alert. The 

Cheviot is very hardy and does best on rough, high land. 

Long-wooled Breeds. The long-wooled breeds are the 

Leicester, the Cotswold, and the Lincoln. They are larger 




The champion grade wether at the International Live Stock Show, 1912. 

than any of the medium- wooled breeds except the Oxford, 
and the wool is longer but less dense. They are often called 
the lowland breeds, because they were developed in the low 
parts of England, where feed is plentiful. 

The Leicesters are divided into two distinct breeds: 
the Border Leicester, which has a bare head ; the English 
Leicester, which more closely resembles the Lincoln 
and has some wool on the forehead. The wool of the 
Leicester is lighter and less dense than that of the 
Lincoln or the Cotswold, and has a peculiar curliness 



SHEEP 281 

The legs are more slender and the body is smaller than in 
the other long-wooled breeds. 

The Cotswold has a longer neck than the Lincoln or 
the Leicester, and a long forelock of wool hangs down over 
the forehead. The wool is long and wavy. 

The Lincoln is the largest of the English breeds. The 
wool of the Lincoln is longer and less wavy than that of 
other sheep of its class. The fibers mass together and fall 
away in heavy flakes. 

Handling Sheep. Sheep are very timid and should not 
be frightened by loud noises, strange dogs, or any other 
unusual disturbance. Their flesh is easily bruised, and a 
bruise may be followed by serious trouble. In catching a 
sheep, one should grasp it by the lower jaw or by the front 
of the hind leg just at the flank. Any pull on the fleece or 
the skin loosens the skin, ruptures many tiny blood vessels, 
and causes great pain. The fleece should never be care- 
lessly opened, nor should holes be made in it, since the 
quality of the fleece is thus injured. The first thing to 
learn in handling a sheep is to keep the fingers of the hand 
close together and not to stick the fingers into the wool. 

Judging Sheep. The heavy covering of wool makes it 
difficult to get an accurate idea of the shape of the sheep's 
body and the development of the parts from which the 
butcher gets the most valuable cuts of mutton. In judg- 
ing fat sheep or sheep which are to be butchered, the most 
important points are condition, form, and quality. Condi- 
tion covers the amount of fat or flesh. The back, the loin, 
and the rump should be well covered, and the thigh, known 
as the leg of mutton, should be full and round. The 
form of the sheep's body should be rectangular, and equal 
in width at hips and shoulders. The back should be well 
carried and the ribs well sprung. Quality includes both 



282 



AGRICULTURE 



general quality and quality of flesh. General quality is 
shown by fineness of bone, thinness of ears, and fine 
silky hair on the nose and on the legs below the knees and 
the hocks. General quality indicates the fineness of the 
fibers in the meat. In addition, should be determined 
the question of evenness of flesh ; that is, whether the fat 
which covers the body is distributed equally over the back 
and the loin. 




The P.nrts of a Sheep. 



1. Muzzle. 

2. Face. 
■i. Eye. 

4. Ear. 

5. Neck. 



Top of shoulder. 
Shoulder. 
Chest. 
Brisket. 
Fore lefi. 



Back. 

Loin. 

Hip. 

Ribs, or side. 

Fore flank. 



10. Belly. 

17. Flank. 

IS. Rump. 

10. Thigh. 

20. Hind leg. 



In judging a sheep, first get far away from the animal 
and observe the form, taking side, front and rear views. 
Note the style, which is indicated by the carriage of the 
head. Now approach the sheep and begin to determine the 
extent to which the wool has deceived the eye. With a 
hand on each side of the neck, press firmly down to deter- 



SHEEP 283 

mine the fullness of the neck. Working back over the 
shoulders, feel for compactness on top and covering on the 
sides. With one hand press firmly down on the back to 
examine it for covering of flesh and for weakness. With 
one hand on top and the other below, note depth of chest, 
and with a hand on either side, width of chest. Feel care- 
fully over the loin for covering of flesh. With the hands 
flat against the sides, determine the width of the loin. 
Examine the rump for length and covering of flesh, and 
try to span the leg at the thigh with both hands to deter- 
mine the size of the leg of mutton. When the form of the 
sheep has been determined with eye and hand, open the 
wool on the side, back of the shoulder, and note the color 
of the skin, the evenness of crimp or waviness of the fibers, 
and the amount of yolk or oil in the fleece. The skin should 
be a bright pink. The crimp of the fibers should be even, 
and the yolk well distributed. 

In judging breeding sheep the same process is carried 
out, but more attention is paid to breed and sex character- 
istics than when judging fat sheep. Breed characteristics 
are those characteristics, such as color of face and kind of 
wool, which distinguish the breed to which the sheep be- 
longs from other breeds. 

As sex characteristics, the ram should have the heavy 
head, the short, thick neck, and the aggressive expression 
which denote the male sex in sheep. The head of the ewe 
should have a more delicate appearance, and her neck 
should be more slender than that of the ram. 

Feeding Sheep. Sheep respond very quickly to good 
feed and care. They require feeds higher in protein than 
do other animals. Alfalfa, clover, and pea hay make the 
best roughage. The grain ration should consist of corn 
with bran and linseed meal or oats. Sheep make good use 
of weed-infested pastures, as they will eat eighty per cent 



284 AGRICULTURE 

of the common weeds, while cattle or horses will eat only- 
fifty per cent. They do well on wheat pastures in winter. 
Lambs may be allowed to run in standing corn and will 
not damage the corn, but old sheep soon begin to tear down 
the stalks and eat the ears. 

Sheep increase rapidly, and the double income from 
lambs and wool makes it possible for the man who keeps 
a carefully selected flock and takes good care of it to 
double each year the money which he has invested. 

QUESTIONS 

1. To what kind of pasture are sheep best adapted? 

2. Compare the methods of handling sheep in England with 
those employed in France and Spain. 

3. What are the requirements for a good range sheep? 

4. How may sheep be classified according to wool? 

5. Give the classes of American merinos and tell how they may 
be distinguished from each other. 

6. Name the leading breeds of medium-wooled sheep and give 
the distinguishing characteristics of each breed. 

7. Why is the word "Downs" often applied to the Shropshire, 
Hampshire, and Oxford breeds? 

8. Name and give the distinguishing characteristics of the long- 
wooled breeds. 

9. What cautions should be observed in handling sheep? 

10. In judging fat sheep, what are the most important points 
to be considered? 

11. Name and locate the five most important cuts of mutton. 

12. What is meant by crimp? by yolk? 

13. What are breed characteristics? sex characteristics? 

14. What feeds are best suited to sheep? 

15. For what are sheep useful on the average farm? 



CHAPTER XXV 

DAIRYING 

As meat becomes more costly, there is a greater de- 
mand for dairy products, such as milk, butter, and cheese. 
These are among the very best of human foods if they 
are produced under clean, wholesome conditions. 

The farmer who expects to produce milk, cream, but- 
ter, and cheese profitably should keep cows bred and 
selected for their ability to produce large amounts of rich 
milk. It does not pay to feed and milk scrub cows. By 
keeping good cows of the milk type and being careful and 
cleanly, the farmer may convert the rough feeds and 
grains of his farm into relatively high-priced and desir- 
able food for mankind. 

Increasing Milk Production. A very large proportion 
of the cows kept for milking do not yield a profit to the 
farmer ; that is, they are just ordinary cows, and have not 
been well selected. The average cow kept for dairy pur- 
poses in the United States produces in a year about 140 
pounds of butter. About one-third of the cows in Kansas 
are kept for dairy purposes, and they produce an average 
of only 120 pounds of butter each year. Such cows do not 
pay for their feed and care, much less yield a profit. There 
are in the United States a number of dairy herds the mem- 
bers of which average three hundred or more pounds of 
butter a year. 

There were in 1913 about 863,000 cows in Kansas, and 

(285) 



286 AGRICULTURE 

in that year they produced nearly $14,000,000 worth of 
butter. That is only a little over $16 a year for each 
cow — not enough to pay for feed and care. If the farmer 
is to profit from his dairy work, he must dispose of his 
poor cows and use only those which produce large amounts 
of rich milk and remain in milk for long periods. 

Selection of Dairy Cows. There are two ways of select- 
ing dairy cows: first, according to the shape, or type, of 
the animal; second, according to the milk or butter she 
produces. 

Selection according to type, or form, is the method 
usually adopted, and in most cases is the only feasible 
method, because it is difficult to buy cows with good 
records. Choosing cows by their records of production is 
much more accurate than choosing them by their shape, 
but it is true that all high-producing dairy cows are very 
much alike in form and are of what is known as the dairy 
type. 

The Dairy Type. When the cow roamed wild she gave 
but little milk, and gave it for only a few months during 
the year. The larger amount of milk now given by a 
dairy cow is due chiefly to the process of selection, and 
the selection, if carried on, will continue to increase the 
amount. 

It will be worth while for the pupil to look at a beef 
cow and a dairy cow together. He will find that a dairy 
cow differs from a beef cow in that she is thin and angu- 
lar, while the beef cow is thick and blocky in form. The 
head of the dairy cow is neat and delicate; the neck is 
long and slender and not fleshy; the withers are sharp, 
and there is absence of heavy muscles along the back; 
the chest is wide and deep, showing plenty of room for 
heart and lungs; the stomach, or barrel, is large, provid- 



DAIRYING 287 

ing plenty of room for storing feed; the loin is wide 
and strong; the hips are wide apart, and this width is 
carried back, making a long, wide rump; the udder is 
attached high behind and far forward on the barrel; the 
hair on the udder is fine and soft; the milk veins that 
run from the udder forward are large and enter into large 
openings, or milk wells. The fact that the cow is lean in 
appearance indicates that she is inclined to make milk 
rather than to put fat on her body. The large barrel in- 
dicates feeding capacity. A large udder indicates ability 
to produce large amounts of milk, and the size of the 
milk veins indicates somewhat the amount of blood that 
goes to the udder, where the milk is made. Besides these 
points, a cow should have soft skin and hair, which indi- 
cate a good digestion. 

It is worth while for the pupil to study this carefully, 
and apply it by looking at as many different cattle as he 
can, for a trained eye for good cows is very valuable in 
buying a herd. 

Keeping Records of Dairy Cows. While it is not diffi- 
cult to distinguish between a poor cow and a good one 
by appearance, it is not always possible to tell the differ- 
ence between a fair animal and a good one. Consequently 
the reliable method to use in judging the ability of an 
animal to produce milk is to keep records of the pro- 
ductions of each cow in the herd. 

If the milk is sold from the farm, the milk from each 
cow should be weighed and the weight recorded. A cow 
that does not produce four thousand pounds of milk, or 
465 gallons, a year is not worth her keep, and should be 
sold for beef. If butter fat is sold, it is necessary to know 
the amoimt of butter fat produced by each cow. The 
milk should be weighed, and at least once a month a 



288 



AGRICULTURE 




Babcock testing outfit. This outfit is large enough for 
testing the milk of a herd of ten to fifteen cows. 



sample should be taken and tested with the Babcock 
tester. (See directions in the Appendix.) Suppose 
the sample taken at the morning and night milkings 

for one day is found 
to test 4.2 per cent. 
This means that in 
every hundred pounds 
of milk there are 4.2 
pounds of butter fat. 
Consequently, if the 
cow gives 650 pounds 
of milk in a month the 
amount of butter fat 
for the month is 27.3 pounds. By keeping only the best 
cows and by using pure-bred sires of merit one may soon 
bring the production of the herd up to a high standard. 
The Dairy Breeds. Where one has a market for milk 
and cream and desires to keep a small herd of cows it is 
better to use cattle of a dairy breed than to use beef-bred 
animals. 

The dairy breeds have been selected in the same way in 
which the individual can select his animals for the purpose 
of large production. It is as difficult to get profitable 
production of butter and milk from the beef animal as it 
would be to win a race with a draft horse. 

The four principal breeds in order of quantity of milk 
produced are the following: 

1. Holstein. 

2. Ayrshire. 

3. Guernsey. 

4. Jersey. 

Their rank in the richness of milk, naturally enough, 
is just the opposite : 
1. Jersey. 



DAIRYING 



289 



2. Guernsey. 

3. Ayrshire. 

4. Holstein. 

There are also other dairy breeds, such as the Brown 
Swiss, the Dutch Belted, and the Milking Shorthorn. 

The Jerseys and the Guernseys are named for the 
islands in which they were developed. Both of the islands 
are in the Channel Island group, Jersey being the largest 
island and Guernsey the next. 

Jerseys. The Jersey is the smallest of the dairy breeds. 
In color the animals range from a light yellow fawn to a 
very dark fawn and may have white spots. The nose, the 
tongue, and the switch of the tail are usually black. 




Owl's Design, a pure-bred Jersey, holds the record of Jerseys in Kansas. She produced 14,6116 pounds 
of milk and 765 pounds of butter in one year. 

although there are some animals which have white mark- 
ings in these places. The milk of the Jersey cow contains 
about five per cent of butter fat. 

Guernseys. The Guernsey breed is somewhat related 

19 



290 



AGRICULTURE 



to the Jersey, but differs in that cattle belonging to it are 
a little larger and have slightly different colors. Guern- 
seys are fawn color, with either a lemon or an orange 




Bemice Countess 2d, a pure-bred Guernsey. Her record for one year as a two-yeir-old is 939 U. 
pounds of milk and GIO pounds of butter. 




Elizabeth of Junear, a pure-bred Ayrshire, holds the world's record for a three-year-old of this breed. 
She produced 15,122 pounds of milk and 626 pounds of butter in one year. 



DAIRYING 



291 



tint, and have white spots on their bodies. Nose, tongue, 
and switch, which in the Jersey are ordinarily black, 
are usually white in the Guernsey. Guernseys are noted 
for the rich color of their milk, which contains about 4.8 
per cent of butter fat. 

Ayrshires. The Ayrshire cow originated in Scotland* 
not far, therefore, from the place of origin of the two 
breeds just mentioned. Cows of this breed are spotted red 
white, and are larger than Jerseys or Guernseys. While 
they give a larger quantity of milk, it is not so rich 
in butter fat, containing only from 3.8 to 4 per cent. 




Maid Henry, a purL-ijicii iiulntciii tuw, holds the highest record in the state of Kansas. She pro- 
duced 19,600 pounds of milk and 835 pounds of butter in one year at the age of thirteen years. 

Holsteins. The Holstein cow is the only one of the four 
chief dairy breeds that was developed on the continent of 
Europe. It is, however, the oldest dairy breed; for cattle 
were probably first brought to the islands off the coast of 
Europe from the continent itself. The Holstein comes 
from Holland, having been bred in the Low Countries for 



292 AGRICULTURE 

two thousand years, or since a hundred years before the 
Christian era. It is the largest breed of dairy cattle. In 
color it is black and white. Holstein cows give exceedingly 
large quantities of milk, which contains, however, as a 
rule, only about 3.5 per cent of butter fat. 

Feeding the Cow. During the summer the cow depends 
largely upon grass for food ; but if a cow is giving a large 
amount of milk she should be fed some grain while on 
pasture, especially if the pasture is short. In winter cows 




Interior view of the dairy bam at the Kansas State Agricultural College, equipped to handle 
seventy milk cows. 

must be given plenty of feed so that they will furnish all 
the milk they are capable of giving. If the cows obtain some 
green, juicy feed in the winter, such as silage, they will do 
much better than if they are forced to eat dry feed entirely. 
On the majority of farms all the cows in a herd are fed 
alike. They get the same amount of hay and the same 
amount of grain, and receive the same attention. This is 
a poor practice, because the cows that give a large amount 
of milk need more feed than those that give only a small 
amount. 



DAIRYING 



293 



The cow should at all times have clean water. In 
winter she should have freshly pumped well water, for if 
she has to drink ice-cold water she will fall off in her pro- 
duction of milk, and will usually prove unprofitable. 

Stabling. In order than an animal may do its best in 
either growth or production it must be not only well fed 
and watered, but kept in a clean, warm, and well-lighted 
place. The dairy cow, since she does not put much fat on 
her body to keep her warm, must be kept in the barn dur- 
ing cold weather. This barn should be warm, and should 
have plenty of fresh air and plenty of sunlight. If the 
stable is dark and dirty the cows will not produce so well, 
and the milk they do produce will not be fit for any one to 
drink. If the cow is given a chance to keep clean, she, like 
most other animals, will do so. It is only by keeping her 
and her surroundings clean that clean milk can be pro- 
duced. 

Milking. The milking should be done as quickly and as 
quietly as possible. All the milk must be taken from the 

cow each time, for if 
there is any left in the 
udder the cow will soon 
go dry. If the cow is 
dirty, she must be 
cleansed, because it is 
necessary to have every- 
thing clean if clean 
milk is desired. The 
milker's hands and the 
cow's sides and udder 
should be cleansed before the milking is begun. One 
can obtain cleaner milk by using a milk pail that is partly 
closed at the top, as shown in the picture. 

When dirt and dust get into the milk, bacteria are car- 




Two types of milk pail. The partly covered pail keeps 
out dirt and dust. 



294 AGRICULTURE 

ried with them, and these bacteria cause the milk to sour* 
The cleaner the milk, the longer it will keep. If milk is to 
be kept for use it should be cooled to as low a tempera- 
ture as possible immediately after it is drawn from the 
cow. In order to be kept sweet for any length of time 
it must be kept clean and cool. Cooling the milk imme- 
diately and keeping it at a low temperature delays the 
growth of bacteria, which grow best under warmer con- 
ditions. If all milk containers and utensils are sunned 
regularly many bacteria will be destroyed, and the milk 
will keep better. 

Separating Milk. We separate milk to get cream. 
Cream is made up of the same constituents as milk, but 
these constituents are in different proportions. Butter fat 
is the most important constituent of cream. Milk con- 
tains from three to six per cent of butter fat, while cream 
contains from ten to sixty per cent. The butter fat in 
milk and cream is in little circular masses called fat glob- 
ules. These globules are lighter than the rest of the milk. 
When the milk is drawn from the cow and left undis- 
turbed for a time, these fat globules float to the surface. 
When we skim off the top of the milk after it has set a 
while, we obtain cream. This is one method of separating. 

The best method of separating milk is the use of the 
centrifugal separator. The milk is run into a bowl 
which is revolving at a high speed. During this 
process the heavier part of the milk, the skim milk, is 
forced to the outside, while the cream, the lighter part, is 
crowded to the center. In this way the skim milk and the 
cream are separated. The advantage of using the centrif- 
ugal separator is that it is possible to get most of the fat 
out of the milk, and the separation is more rapid and much 
easier. The skim milk is also in better condition for feed- 
ing calves and pigs. 



DAIRYING 295 

The milk should be separated as soon as possible after 
it is taken from the cow. If it gets cold it will not separate 
well, and a large amount of the butter fat will be left in the 
skim milk. The separator must be turned at the proper 
speed, as prescribed in the directions, and should be 
washed and scalded each time it is used. 

Butter Making. Cream that is to be churned is usually 
allowed to sour, or ripen, because it churns more readily 
and the butter has a better taste than that made from 
cream churned while sweet. After the cream has ripened 
properly it is brought to a temperature of 58 degrees in 
winter and 65 degrees in summer, and is then poured into 
the churn. For best results the churn should not be filled 
more than half full. If the cream is ripened properly and 
is brought to the right temperature, the churning should 
be completed in from thirty to forty-five minutes. The 
time to stop churning is when the butter begins to form in 
little lumps the size of a kernel of wheat or corn. One 
should then draw off the buttermilk and add as much 
water as there was buttermilk drawn off. The chum 
should be revolved several times, the water should be 
drawn off, salt should be added at the rate of one ounce 
to each pound of butter, the salt should be worked into 
the butter, and the butter should then be molded into 
prints. 

The barrel churn will give better results than types of 
churns that contain inside fixtures. If a churn has many 
inside fixtures the butter from it will have a gi'easy ap- 
pearance. 

SILOS AND SILAGE 

A quarter of a century ago very few people in this 
country knew what a silo was, and fewer still had ever 
seen one. To-day there are very few people who have 
not heard of the silo. 



296 



AGRICULTURE 



The silo is an air-tight structure used for the preserva- 
tion of green fodders in their green, succulent condition. 
Fodder, when put up in the silo, is called ensilage or 
silage. The first method 
used for preserving the 
green forage consisted 
of ditches and trenches 
in the ground. The 
crops were placed in 
the trenches and cov- 
ered with earth. In 
this way the air was 
excluded from the feed, 
and it was kept from 
spoiling. 

Kinds of Silos. Each 
year the silo is coming 
into more general use in 
every community in 
Kansas. Most of the 
silos are built above ground and are made from such ma- 
terials as wood, cement, cement blocks, cement staves, 
steel, wood and plaster, brick, and hollow tile. 

Some silos are built square or polygonal, but the round 
structure gives better satisfaction. Those built above 
ground have doors to aid in getting the silage out. Before 
the silo is filled, these openings are closed and made air- 
tight. 

The silo is filled from the top, by a blower similar to 
the straw blower on a threshing machine, or by a carrier. 
The crop to be used for silage is cut into pieces from one- 
half to three-fourths of an inch in length, so that it will pack 
thoroughly, and so that all the air possible will be ex- 




Two good types of silo. The one on the right is a 
solid-wall concrete silo; the one on the left is a hollow- 
tile silo. 



DAIRYING 297 

ciuded from the silo. Too much air in the silage will 
cause it to mold or decay. 

Silage is preserved by the formation of acids, not by 
cooking or heating, as is often stated. The acids are 
formed by bacteria which grow under conditions unfavor- 




Filling a silo. A blower is useil to elevate the material from the cutter to the silo. 

able to molds and to decay-producing bacteria. The sour 
taste of silage is due to the acid which preserves the feed. 
The Pit Silo. Silos are sometimes built under ground. 
Such silos are called pit silos. The pit silo must be located 
in dry and well-drained ground, and is therefore not well 
adapted to the eastern part of Kansas, but in western 
Kansas, where the ground is dry and firm, this type of 
silo has proved very satisfactory. While the above-ground 
silo is usually to be preferred because of the ease with 
which the silage can be removed, the pit silo nevertheless 



298 



AGRICULTURE 



has some advantages. In the first place, it can be built 
with but little outlay of money, the principal item of ex- 
pense being the labor required to dig the pit. Second, 
such a silo is easily constructed and requires very little 
skilled labor in building. Third, it can be filled with a 
silage cutter without the use of a blower. 

The pit silo should be convenient to the place where the 
silage is to be fed. It is often possible to dig it at the end 




A pit silo in western Kansas. The method of removing .silai 

picture. 



oiii the .silo is shown in iho 



of the barn, and build a shed over it. The silage can then 
be removed and distributed with a carrier similar to the 
common hay-carrier equipment. It is not advisable to 
build pit silos too large, and especially too deep, because 
the labor of digging and removing the silage increases with 
the depth. When a large storage capacity is needed, 
several small silos are better than one large one. A cir- 
cular silo is most satisfactory and most economical to 



DAIRYING 299 

build. It should be built with a cement curb six inches 
wide encircling the top. The curb should extend a few 
inches above the ground and into the ground a little below 
the frost line. This prevents surface water from entering 
the silo and also prevents the ground from caving into the 
silo around the top. The walls of the silo below the curb 
should be covered with a coat of plaster from three- 
fourths of an inch to one inch thick and then washed with 
a cement coat to make them air- and water-tight. The 
walls must be absolutely perpendicular and smooth so 
that the silage will settle uniformly. The silo should be 
provided with a good cover that will keep out trash and 
dirt and that will prevent children and animals from 
falling in. The top should be so constructed that it will 
provide for free circulation of air within the silo. 

Care should be taken not to enter a pit silo if it is filled 
with carbon dioxide gas. When silage ferments, carbon 
dioxide gas is formed. This gas is heavier than air and will 
sometimes remain in the bottom of the silo. If it is pres- 
ent in sufficient quantities, a person descending into the 
silo will be suffocated. The presence of gas can easily be 
detected by lowering a lighted lantern into the silo. If the 
light goes out, it is an indication that gas is present. If 
gas is present, it can usually be removed by dropping a 
few bundles of hay or fodder into the silo and thus creat- 
ing air currents. There is more danger of gas poisoning 
shortly after the silo is filled, but one should never enter 
a pit silo without first testing for gas. 

Feeding Silage. When fed, silage is taken off the 
top each day, and must be taken from the entire surface of 
the silo, else the silage will spoil and be unfit for food. 
The best crops for silage are corn, kafir, and sorghum, 
followed by milo, oats and peas, cowpeas, rye, and alfalfa. 
These crops are put into the silo a few days before they 



300 AGRICULTURE 

are ripe enough for harvesting. They are not cured in any 
way, but are put up in their green state. The silo enables 
one to preserve the entire corn crop in excellent form for 
feeding. The stalks and leaves of corn contain almost 
one-half of the feeding value of the entire corn plant. The 
other portion of it is in the grain. When the grain is 
harvested and the stalks are left in the field, about one-half 
of the entire crop is wasted. 

The silo furnishes the best method possible for storing 
and feeding the fodder. When made into silage, the fodder 
is easily handled and fed. There are no cornstalks to be 
hauled out of the barnyard or to be broken down in the 
field before plowing. 

When crops are put into the silo they furnish a green 
food for the winter, and this will serve the same purposes 
that the green grass serves in the summer. In this way 
farm animals can be furnished with the best of feed during 
the entire year. Silage, when fed to dairy cows, causes 
them to produce more milk; fed to beef cattle, in connec- 
tion with other feeds, it causes rapid and economical 
gains. It is a good feed for sheep, and horses and hogs 
eat it readily. 

Silage takes the place of pasture during the dry summer 
months. A cow usually eats thirty to forty pounds of 
silage a day. Every farmer who has more than seven cows 
should own a silo. A table in the Appendix shows the 
sizes of silos and the amounts of silage required for given 
numbers of cattle. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the importance of selecting the cows for the dairy? 

2. What are the two methods used in selecting cows? Which 
method is better? 

3. How can we account for the modern dairy cow's having 
dairy type? How does the typical dairy cow differ from the beef 
animal? 



DAIRYING 301 

4. What is indicated by each of the following characteristics 
of the dairy animal: a large barrel; large milk veins; soft skin 
and hair? 

5. What is the best way to keep the records of the milk and 
butter produced by a cow? 

6. If a cow gives 40 pounds of milk per day and it tests 4.6 
per cent butter fat, how much butter fat does the milk contain? 

7. Maid Henry, a Holstein cow at the agricultural college, 
produced in a year 19,600 pounds of milk that tested 3.65 per cent 
butter fat. How much butter fat did she produce during the year? 

8. Name the principal breeds of dairy cattle. How do they 
rank as to quantity of milk given? as to quality of milk? 

9. Describe the Jersey cow typical of the breed; the Guernsey; 
the Ayrshire; the Holstein. 

10. Under what conditions should a cow be fed grain while she 
is on grass? 

11. How may a green, juicy food be provided for the cows during 
the winter months? 

12. Why is it a poor practice to feed all milk cows alike? 

13. State three points that must be kept in mind in building a 
barn for cows. 

14. How does dirt get into the milk? How can this be avoided? 

15. What two things must be done if the milk is to keep sweet 
for any length of time? Why should milk be kept cold? 

16. Why do we separate milk? What is the best method of 
separating? Why does cream come to the top of milk? 

17. Why is cream soured before it is churned? When is the 
proper time to cease churning? What is the best kind of churn? 
Why? 

18. What is a silo? What is silage? What materials are used 
in building silos? How is a pit silo built? 

19. How is a silo filled? Why is the feed cut before it is put in 
the silo? Why does silage keep? 

20. To what animals may silage be fed with advantage? What 
are the advantages of a silo? What are the best crops for silage? 



CHAPTER XXVI 

POULTRY 

The value of the meat and eggs produced by poultry in 
the United States in one year is about equal to that of all 
the gold, silver, iron, and coal mined in the United States 
in the same length of time. 

Kansas stands fifth among the states of the Union in 
number of fowls of all kinds kept on farms. The states 
that lead her are Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio. In 
the value of her poultry Kansas stands seventh, being 
exceeded by New York and Pennsylvania in addition to 
those which lead in the numbers kept. The reasons these 
two states having fewer fowls lead Kansas in the matter 
of value is that much more attention has been given to 
keeping only pure breeds of poultry and giving them good 
care, and that proximity to the markets causes better 
prices to be obtained. The value of all the poultry and 
eggs sold or consumed in Kansas in one year is probably 
between $30,000,000 and $40,000,000. 

Kinds of Poultry. The tame birds which are raised for 
the purpose of supplying meat and eggs are spoken of as 
poultry. The most common kinds are chickens, turkeys, 
ducks, geese, guinea fowls, and pigeons. Ninety-five per 
cent of all the poultry in the United States consists of 
chickens, and this figure holds very nearly true for Kansas. 

How Poultry is Named. There are four kinds of names 
used in naming poultry. These are: 

1. The species name. 3. The breed name. 

2. The class name. 4. The variety name. 

(302) 



POULTRY 



303 



TABLE SHOWING THE CLASS, BREED, AND VARIETY NAMES OF THE COMMON 
SORTS OF POITLTRY. 

Brahma I k'^*!*- 

[ Dark. 



Chicken, 



PouHry . 



Asiatic . 



Mediterranean . 



American. 



Cochin (§"^-.. 

' ' '[ Partridge. 

Langshan | ^1?^^' 

[ White. 

f S. C. Brown. 

Leghorn J-^-,?,?*?^"- 

. ■ ■ S. C. White. 
I R. C. White. 

fS.C. Black. 

Minorca i R. C. Biacl- 

I S. C. White. 

Plymouth Rock ... . [f.fJT^- 
[ White. 

Wyandotte j Silver-Iaeed. 

[ Columbian. 

Rhode Island Red ( p 9,- ^'^'^f 

!, K. O. Red. 

English Orpington ] White 

I Black. 



Turkey Turkey . 



Turkev 



Bronze. 
White. 
Buff. 



Duck. 



Pekin White. 

Duck ; Rouen Colored. 

Indian Runner ... ' S?u^? and White 
1 White. 



Goose. 



Toulouse Gray. 

Emden White. 



304 



AGRICULTURE 




As may be seen in the accompanying table the species 

name tells what kind of poultry is meant. Of all kinds 

except chickens the species 
and the class names are the 
same. In the case of chick- 
ens, however, the class name 
of the common sorts tells 
whence the chickens first 
came. Those belonging to the 
Asiatic class were first brought 
to this country from Asia. 
The Mediterraneans came 
from the country surround- 
ing the Mediterranean sea. 
The English and the 
Black Langshans (Asiatic). Americau classes Originated 

in England and America, respectively. 

Each class is divided into several breeds. A breed 

is a group of birds having the 

same shape, and the breed 

name refers to all the birds 

having that shape. It is the 

shape name. Brahmas are a 

group of chickens which first 

came from Asia, and which 

have a characteristic shape. 

Toulouse geese are geese hav- 
ing a certain shape, which has 

been named Toulouse. 

It will be noticed in the 

foregoing table that turkeys 

are all of one breed. This is Barred Plymouth Rock Male (American). 

because they are all of the same shape, so that the spe- 
cies, the class, and the breed names are the same. 





GOOD BREEDS OF CHICKENS FOR KANSAS 
BUFF ORPINGTON, WHITE LEGHORN, LIGHT BRAHMA, BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK 



POULTRY 



305 



The variety name may be thought of as the color name. 
So we have Light and Dark Brahmas; White, Brown, and 
Buff Leghorns; Bronze, White, and Buff Turkeys. Some- 




White FI>-mouth Rocks and Rhode Island Reds. 



306 AGRICULTURE 

times, however, birds of the same shape and color have 
different kinds of combs, as have the Single-Comb and 
the Rose-Comb White Leghorns. In such cases the variety 
name includes both comb and color name, as in the case 
of the Single-Comb White Leghorn. 

It is customary to use only the breed and the variety 
name in speaking of any sort of poultry; as, Light Erah- 
mas, or Toulouse geese. Where the variety name distin- 
guishes the kind of comb as well as the color it is customary 
to shorten the written name by using the letters S. C. and 
R. C. for Single-Comb and Rose-Comb; as, for instance, 
R. C. Brown Leghorns. 

Much of the poultry found on Kansas farms is a mixture 
of several breeds or varieties. Such stock is referred to as 
scrub or mongrel stock, and has no name besides that of 
the species. 

Houses for Poultry. While houses are not necessary 
for turkeys or geese, it pays to build a good house for 
ducks and chickens. All that is needed for turkeys and 
geese is some sort of rough shelter for the severest weather. 
It is not necessary to build so expensive a house for ducks 
as for chickens, because ducl<s are more hardy and can 
stand cold and lack of sunshine better. 

The necessary conditions of a duck house are dryness, 
freedom from drafts, and cleanliness. The floor of the 
duck house where only a few are kept, should be well 
bedded with straw, and should be cleaned out as soon as 
the straw becomes matted and damp. 

Dryness is even more important in a chicken house than 
in a shelter for ducks, for chickens take diseases very much 
more easily than do ducks, and dampness is favorable to 
the development of disease germs. Because sunlight kills 
germs, there should be plenty of windows on the south 
side of the hen house, so that plenty of sunlight can get in. 



POULTRY 



307 



Chickens take cold very easily if they are in a draft, 
consequently it is best to have most of the openings on 
one side of the building, making the other sides tight, so 




•y*,i» 



A good farm poultry house. 

there may be no chance for drafts. Some of the openings 
should be covered with glass, like ordinary windows, but 
most of them should be covered only with cheesecloth on 
frames. These cloth coverings can be lowered when it is 
stormy, but should be kept open most of the time, so that 
there will always be plenty of fresh air in the house. The 
health of chickens is very dependent on fresh air. 

Saving Eggs for Hatching. Eggs that are to be used for 
hatching should be set as soon as possible after being laid. 
When for any reason it is necessary to keep them for a 
time before setting them, they should be kept in a cool, 
dry place and turned once every day. 

Running an Incubator. The room in which an incu- 
bator is kept should have as nearly uniform a temperature 



308 



AGRICULTURE 



Upper or (/iff II 
sive (iiup/tra^m\ 

Purser!/ .. 



Neater 



Xffaiiffini^ 

thtrmometer 

---Effff frai^ 

lamp 



■ - - - J)oo;^ 



as possible. Generally a cellar is the best place, because in 
cool weather a living room is likely to be warm during the 
day and cool at night. The top of the incubator should be 
level. If one corner is higher than the rest the hot air will 
rise to that corner and make it warmer. This will cause 
the eggs in that part of the machine to hatch before they 
should, which will be likely to result in weak chickens. 

After the 
lamp has been 
lighted the 
regulators 
should be ad- 
justed until an 
even tempera- 
ture of 102° 
or 103° is held 
on a level with 
the top of the 
eggs. In all 
parts of the 

state, except a good type of incubator. 

possibly the extreme eastern end, a pan of water with a 
good-sized sponge in it should be placed below the egg 
tray for the purpose of keeping the air surrounding the 
eggs moist. The incubator is then ready to receive the eggs. 

Beginning the third day, one should take the eggs out 
three times every day and turn them by moving them 
about in the egg tray gently with the hands. Once each 
day they should be left outside the incubator until they feel 
cool to some sensitive part of the body, such as the lips 
or the eyelids. This cooling corresponds to that which 
occurs when the hen leaves the nest to eat. It results in 
a better hatch. 

On the seventh and fourteenth days infertile eggs and 




f • \ur'<er,/ fraffs rtmovcef, 
also called loutr e/ie/phraffms 



POULTRY 309 

those in which the chick shows unmistakable evidence of 
having died should be removed from the incubator. This 
gives more room for the chicks to hatch and prevents the 
dead eggs from spoiling and making the air surrounding 
the eggs impure. 

The incubator should be run as outlined above until the 
eighteenth day, when the temperature may be allowed to 
reach 104, but must not go above 105. The turning and 
cooling should be stopped at this time and the door of the 
incubator kept closed until the hatch is over. Before the 
door is closed permanently, the moisture pan should be 
removed and the tray shifted so that the chicks may drop 
down into the space below the egg tray (called the nursery) 
as they come forward to the light. 

Brooding. When it is necessary to brood chicks with- 
out hens, brooders are used. A brooder is a box or small 
house which is well- ventilated and which may be warmed 
to any desired temperature. When the chicks are first 
taken from the incubator the temperature under the hov- 
erer (the warmest part of the brooder) should be about 
100°. As the chicks grow and become covered with 
feathers this temperature should be reduced, care being 
taken, however, to keep the chicks comfortable at all 
times. If they are kept too warm they are likely to be- 
come ill with leg weakness. In severe cases the chicks 
become unable to walk at all. If they are kept too cool 
they will not grow as they should, and in case of severe 
chilling will die. 

Besides being kept warm and well-ventilated, the 
brooder should be frequently and carefully cleaned. 

Feeding Chickens. The feeding habits of chickens 
differ somewhat from those of other species of poultr>% 
and very decidedly from those of other farm animals. 



310 



AGRICULTURE 



They do not need so much animal food as do ducks or 
turkeys, and are greater seed and grain eaters than either 
ducks or geese, which consume large amounts of grass and 
other soft herbage. 

In comparison with other farm animals, their feed is 
very much more concentrated, being made up chiefly of 
grains and grain by-products. 
While they eat a good deal of 
green grass, they can not make 
use of dry hay or fodder as do 
the larger animals. They 
need a larger proportion of 
protein and mineral matter in 
their feed than do any of the 
larger animals. The extra 
amount of mineral is neces- 
sary to furnish material out 
of which to make egg shells. 
It also serves to grind the i 
feed in the gizzard, as the 
feed is swallowed whole. 

Kinds of Feed. Chicken feed is usually furnished 
mainly in two forms, called "scratching feed" and mash. 
The "scratching feed" is made up of whole or cracked 
grains, and is fed by being scattered in a deep litter of 
straw so that the birds will need to take a great deal of 
exercise in scratching it out. The mash is made up of 
ground material, like shorts, middlings, commercial meat 
scraps, oil meal, and cottonseed meal. This may be fed 
dry in hoppers made for the purpose, or may be moistened 
with milk or water and fed in troughs. Twice as much 
"scratching feed" as mash should be fed. 

Supplements. To supplement these kinds of feed and 




Dark Brahma Female (Asiatic.) 



POULTRY 



311 




make them more useful, supplements, or accessories to the 
main ration, are fed. These are generally grit; shell or 
bone; charcoal; and green feed. Grit is made out of any- 
hard mineral substance, like 
granite or flint, crushed into 
pieces about the size of grain. 
It aids the gizzard in grinding 
the feed. Shell or bone is use- 
ful in furnishing the material 
for the formation of bone in 
growing chicks and the egg 
shell with laying stock. It is 
made of oyster shell or bone 
ground to the proper size. 
Charcoal ground to the right 
size is readily eaten by fowls, 

and helps to keep them in white Wyandotte Male (American). 

good health by absorbing injurious substances from the 
digestive organs. Fresh, tender green food, like young 
grass, cabbage, and sprouted oats, is relished by chick- 
ens, adds variety to the feed, and helps to stimulate the 
appetite. 

Rations for Laying Hens. A good ration for laying hens 
of medium size (American and English breeds) is as fol- 
lows: three parts of wheat; three parts of cracked corn; 
one part of oats. This is fed in connection with a dry 
mash made of 60 pounds of corn meal; 60 pounds of 
wheat middlings or shorts; 50 pounds of meat scraps; 30 
pounds of wheat bran; 10 pounds of linseed-oil meal; 10 
pounds of alfalfa meal; 1 pound of salt. Grit, shell, and 
charcoal should at all times be kept in hoppers before the 
birds, and all the green feed that the birds will eat up 
quickly should be fed them once a day. 

A good ration for laying hens of the Mediterranean, 



312 AGRICULTURE 

or lightweight, breeds includes a mash fed dry, consist- 
ing of corn meal, 3 3-^ parts by weight; linseed-oil meal, 
1 part by weight; wheat bran, 5^ parts by weight; wheat 
middlings or shorts, 3 parts by weight; meat scraps, 2 1^2 
parts by weight. The scratching part of the ration con- 
sists of whole corn and wheat in equal parts. The sup- 
plements to the ration should be furnished as before. 
During the winter silage may be given freely in place of 
green feed. 

With both of these rations, the scratching feed is scat- 
tered in litter twice a day. In the morning a light feed 
is given, while at night the birds are given all they will eat. 
At noon the mash hoppers are opened, and left open 
throughout the afternoon. There is little danger of hens' 
overeating of mash; they prefer grain, and will generally 
be found eager for their evening meal of scratching feed. 
Green feed is also given at noon if the birds are shut up 
or the ground is frozen. Fresh water is given in the morn- 
ing and at noon. In warm weather it should be given again 
in the evening. 

Feeding Chicks. Little chicks should not be fed any- 
thing for at least forty-eight hours after hatching. The 
yolk of the egg is taken into the body of the chick just 
before it hatches, and supplies it with food for from two 
to three days. Chicks should not be fed until they show, 
by chirping loudly, that they are hungry. From that time 
on, they should be fed at least five times daily. The first 
feed may consist of the infertile eggs tested out of the 
incubator ; hard boiled ; and ground fine, shell and all, in a 
meat chopper; and mixed with about six times their bulk 
of rolled oats. 

About the sixth day the following grain mixture may be 
fed: cracked wheat, 15 parts by weight; pinhead oatmeal, 
10 parts by weight; finely cracked corn, 15 parts by weight; 



POULTRY 313 

finely cracked peas, 3 parts by weight; broken rice, 2 parts 
by weight; fine grit, 5 parts by weight; fine charcoal, 2 
parts by weight. 

As soon as the chicks can eat whole wheat and coarsely 
cracked corn they should be given these in place of the 
finely cracked grain. 

When the chicks are weaned, or taken from the brooders, 
they may be fed by the use of hoppers if they have the run 
of the fields and pastures, because they will get abundant 
exercise chasing bugs and scratching for worms. Cracked 
corn, wheat, cracked bone, oyster shell, and grit may be 
placed in separate troughs, as may also the following dry 
mash mixture: wheat bran, 1 part by weight; corn meal, 
2 parts by weight; wheat middlings, 1 part by weight; 
meat scraps, 1 part by weight. 

Caring for Market Eggs. Eggs spoil so easily that they 
are classed, along with milk and butter, among "highly 
perishable products." . Butter melts, and milk clabbers, if 
not kept cool. These conditions change their appearance 
and are easily noticed. An egg, however, may spoil com- 
pletely and still have the appearance of a good egg. For 
this reason eggs are not cared for on the farm so carefully 
as are butter and milk. 

In saving eggs for market one should try to keep them 
as fresh as possible. They lose their freshness by shrink- 
ing, incubating, growing watery, molding, and absorbing 
odors. All these defects increase with age, and eggs should 
therefore be sent to market just as soon after they are laid 
as possible. 

When it is impossible to market them promptly, they 
should be placed in a room in which the temperature never 
goes above 68°. Most cellars give the proper temperature. 
The reason for giving special attention to temperature is 
that a fertile egg will begin to grow into a chick in any 



314 AGRICULTURE 

temperature above 68°. The room where eggs are kept 
should also be dry and free from odors. If the air is damp, 
spots of mold are likely to grow inside the egg shell and 
make the eggs unfit to eat. If the cellar has a musty smell, 
or if the eggs are kept close to onions, decayed vegetables, 
and the like, the odors will be absorbed, and the flavor of 
the eggs will be affected. Besides being fresh, a really first- 
class egg must be clean, of good size, and free from cracks. 
The raising of good poultry, with proper care of the 
birds and of the eggs, will improve the home table of the 
farmer and will at the same time give him an additional 
source of income. Poultry keeping proves also interesting 
and attractive to the boys and girls. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How does the value of meat and eggs produced by poultry 
in one year compare with the value of the gold and silver mined in 
the same period? 

2. What is the rank of Kansas as a poultry state? 

3. How is poultry named? 

4. Tell the difference between a class, a breed, and a variety, 
and name the three most common American breeds. 

5. What are the essentials in a poultry house? 

6. On what days should incubator eggs be tested and at what 
temperature should an incubator be run? Where should an in- 
cubator be run? 

7. What are the important conditions in artificial brooding? 

8. How do chickens differ from other farm animals in their 
feeding habits? 

9. What are the kinds of poultry feed? 

10. Give a good ration for a laying hen. 

11. Tell how little chicks should be fed. 

12. Give rations for chicks before and after they are weaned. 

13. Tell how to care for eggs so that they will reach market in 
first-class condition. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 

Animals, like men, have diseases. In many cases the 
same diseases may be given to both man and the lower 
animals. Man is afflicted, however, with some diseases 
which the lower animals do not contract, and likewise the 
lower animals are subject to some diseases with which the 
human family is not troubled. The body of the human 
being and that of a lower animal are made up of the same 
kinds of tissues and organs, and it is chiefly the difterence 
in food and surroundings which makes the difference in 
disease. 

What Causes Disease. So long as all the organs and 
all the tissues of the body perform their normal functions, 
the animal is healthy. But when any of the organs or 
tissues do not perform the work that nature intended they 
should, the animal does not thrive, but becomes ill at ease, 
or, as we say, diseased. If this condition goes on for any 
length of time the result may show itself in various ways, 
depending upon the parts affected and upon the cause of 
the trouble. Disease, then, may be said to be a departure 
from the state of health. So long as the animal eats the 
proper amount of clean, wholesome food and drinks a 
certain amount of pure water and breathes a certain 
amount of pure air, its tissues and organs perform the 
functions nature intended they should and the animal is 
considered healthy. Any interference from any cause 
results in what we call disease. An animal not given food 
enough, too much food, improper kinds of food, or food, 
air, or water that is not pure, will in time cease to thrive 

(315) 



316 



AGRICULTURE 



or may even feel pain, which is a sign of disease. Sudden 
changes in the temperature of the air, too much cold, heat, 
sun, or rain, or a draft of air when the animal is weak or 
tired, or the entrance into the system of certain small 
organisms — any of these conditions help to cause disease. 
When these abnormal conditions are present the animal 
shows them in various ways, depending upon the parts 
affected and the severity of the cause. 

Kinds of Diseases. Diseases of animals and man are 
usually divided into two classes. The one class comprises 
all those diseases which are occasionally met with at dif- 
ferent times of the year and which can not be transmitted 




Animals become diseased when forced to live on insanitary premises. 

by the sick to the well. These diseases are called sporadic, 
or noninfectious, diseases. Examples of such diseases are 
rheumatism, colic, and paralysis. Infectious diseases are 
those which are caused by small organisms called germs 
and can be transmitted from the sick animal to the well 
ones. In this class are included such diseases as tubercu- 
losis, or consumption, in both man and the lower animals; 



DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 317 

diphtheria, typhoid fever, and smallpox in man ; and hog 
cholera, rabies, and distemper in some of the lower animals. 
How Diseases Spread. Infectious diseases are trans- 
mitted to other animals by germs. These are organisms 
most of which belong to the vegetable kingdom and which 
are too small to be seen except with a high-power micro- 
scope. Each organism can cause only one kind of 
disease. It is necessary that before any infectious dis- 
ease can show itself or develop, the organism must 
be taken into the system. In other words, it is neces- 
sary to bring the germ and the animal together. If 
they are kept apart the disease can not spread. If the 
organisms were large enough to be seen with the naked 
eye it would be an easy matter to prevent the spread of 
diseases, but since they are so small that we can not see 
them they sometimes travel rather fast and far before we 
are aware of it. Some of them live and grow and are 
carried to healthy animals in water, some of them in milk, 
some in the dust. Some live only a short time outside the 
animal body. When a germ gets into the system of an 
animal it multiplies very rapidly, and germs are usually 
found in the blood and all the tissues of the affected animal 
in a very short time. Some of them are thrown off through 
every avenue in the body, frequently by the million, as 
they multiply very, very rapidly. It can be seen that if 
any animal is sick merely one day with an infectious dis- 
ease, the whole yard, the barn, or the pen where the animal 
is kept may be infected. It would naturally then suggest 
itself that, wherever there is an infectious disease, the well 
animals should be taken away from the sick ones as soon 
as the trouble is discovered, and as many as possible of the 
organisms that escape from the sick animal should be 
destroyed. 



318 AGRICULTURE 

Disinfection. An animal that has the organisms in its 
body is infected. Getting rid of, or killing, these organ- 
isms we call disinfection. We may disinfect the animal 
or disinfect the surroundings. Since the organisms are 
found usually in all parts of the body of an infected animal, 
it is hard to make a thorough disinfection of the animal, 
but we can disinfect the place in which the animal is kept, 
and keep the disease under control. Sunshine is nature's 
best disinfectant, and, wherever possible, the sun should 
be encouraged to shine into all rooms and pens in which 
disease exists. All straw, cobs, sticks of wood, and litter 
should be removed from the premises and burned, in order 
that the organisms may not be able to hide from the sun 
underneath these obstructions. Then, in order to destroy 
all organisms that may have begun to go into the ground 
or into fence corners or floors, these places should be 
thoroughly covered or sprayed with one part of crude 
carbolic acid to twenty parts of water, or with a three per 
cent solution of compound cresol. This should be used 
wherever there is the slightest chance for any of the 
organisms to hide. They like moist, shady places. Con- 
sequently, for thorough disinfection good drainage is 
necessary, and freshly slaked lime scattered every few 
days over the ground and floors where animals are kept 
will help very much to keep the premises free from germs. 

When the organisms become so numerous in the body 
of an animal that they interfere seriously with the function 
of one or more of its organs, the animal becomes diseased, 
or sick. If the normal function is not soon restored, the 
death of the animal results. The whole body of this 
animal is filled with these organisms, which are spread in 
different ways to other animals. Persons walking through 
the premises where these germs are, or animals going 
through, or birds coming upon the premises, can carry 



DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 319 

enough of the germs on their feet to give the disease to 
many other animals miles away. It can be seen how 
necessary it is to keep these organisms from getting away 
or from spreading to other animals. The main object 
should be to destroy as many of the organisms as possible 
and to keep the organisms and the healthy animals apart. 
This, of course, is accomplished by disinfection, and since 
the body of this dead animal is filled with these organisms 






A lot like tills breeds disease germs. 

it should be burned immediately or buried very deep and 
covered with freshly slaked lime. The place where the 
animal was kept should be thoroughly disinfected, so that 
a healthy animal coming upon this place may not take 
the disease. 

The general rule followed in disinfecting stables where 
diseased animals have been kept is as follows: Remove 
and burn all cobwebs, bedding in stalls, contents of the 
mangers, feed boxes, hayricks, and all loose and decayed 
woodwork in the stables, barns, or sheds where the affected 
animals have been. Thoroughly scrape and cleanse the 
floors, the sides, and the front of the stalls, as well as 
the mangers, feed boxes, stanchions, and hayricks, and 
thoroughly saturate them with a solution of carbolic acid 



320 AGRICULTURE 

(six ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water), or 
with a three per cent solution of compound cresol. Then 
thoroughly paint or whitewash all exposed woodwork with 
a wash containing one pound of chloride of lime to each 
four gallons of water, enough quicklime having been 
added to make the mixture wash white. Scatter lime all 
over the floor, especially in the corners and in all damp 
places. The watering troughs and buckets must be thor- 
oughly scalded, and rinsed with hot water. 

The organisms of many diseases are found to increase 
in number in nearly all stables, pens, and yards. Dis 
temper (catarrhaj fever), lock-jaw (tetanus), some lung 
troubles, and one of the most deadly diseases of young 
foals, are some of the most common diseases the organ- 
isms of which are found in the horse stables and surround- 
ings. All these diseases can be prevented by proper care. 
In the cattle barns, tuberculosis, lump-jaw (actinomycosis), 
and calf diseases develop if the premises are not kept clean, 
while around the hog lots the germs of cholera and tuber- 
culosis are liable to be harbored for a long time. 

A good plan is to clean and disinfect the whole premises 
thoroughly every spring and fall, following the foregoing 
methods. In this way fully ninety per cent of. infectious 
diseases can be prevented. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the general make-up of man and that of the lower 
animals. To what extent are man and the lower animals subject 
to the same diseases? 

2. Under what conditions may a person or animal be said to 
be healthy? diseased? 

3. What are some of the general causes of disease? 

4. What are the two general classes of diseases? Name some 
diseases of each class. 

5. How do infectious diseases spread? 

6. What is necessary to prevent a person or an animal from 
taking a certain disease from another person or animal? 



DISEASES OF LIVE STOCK 321 

7. How many different diseases can a certain kind of organism 
produce? 

8. How large are disease-producing organisms and in what 
parts of the animal are they usually found? 

9. How do disease germs spread from one animal to another? 
How fast do they increase in number? 

10. What is disinfection? Name some common disinfectants. 

11. What should be done with the bodies of animals that have 
died of infectious disease? 

12. How should you disinfect a building and yard? 



21 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 

Every forest tree grows from a seed or from a part of a 
twig or root called a cutting. A plot of ground devoted 
entirely to the growing of trees from seeds or cuttings is 
a nursery. A forest nursery is a nursery devoted entirely 
to the growing of forest trees until they reach a suitable 
size for planting in their permanent location for the pro- 
duction of posts, poles, or lumber. 

Forest trees are divided into two main groups, conifers 
and broadleaf trees. 

The group known as conifers is composed of trees that 
bear cones. Conifers are usually known as evergreens, 
although some of the species of this group shed their leaves 
annually, as do the broadleaf species. Pines, spruces, firs, 
hemlocks, larches, cypresses, cedars, and others comprise 
this group. 

The broadleaf species are known also as hardwoods. 
The group is made up of species that differ from the coni- 
fers in the shape of the leaves. All of them have leaves 
more or less wide, rather than needlelike, as are the leaves 
of the conifers. The trees composing the broadleaf group 
shed their leaves annually, with the exception of a few, 
known as broadleaf evergreens, which are represented by 
the live oak, the holly , and the magnolia. 

Conifers. Seeds of the conifers are sown in well- 
prepared beds covered with a lattice roof that protects 
the seedlings from the direct light of the sun, and from 
wind, hail, and dashing rain. 

(322) 



GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 



323 




Coniferous seedlings in the State 
Forest Nursery. The shade frames 
have been removed to allow the 
seedlings to be seen. 



The seeds are sown in April or early in May. Under 
favorable weather conditions, they begin to come up in 
about a week. At the end of the 
first season's growth they vary 
from two to six inches in height, 
depending upon the species, the 
young seedling trees from small 
seeds being smaller than those from 
large seeds. 

At the age of one or two years 
these seedlings are transplanted to 
rows in the open, which are spoken 
of as nursery rows. In these rows 
they are planted six or eight inches 
apart, and are allowed to grow for 
one or two years, until they reach a 
suitable size for permanent planting. 

Broadleaf Trees. The broadleaf species do not require 
so much protection from sun, wind, rain, and hail as do 
the conifers, and they are usually grown in rows in the 
open. They make a much stronger growth. 

The seeds may be planted either in the fall or early in 
the spring. The rate of growth of the seedlings depends 
largely on the size of the seeds. The larger the seed, the 
more rapidly the seedling will usually grow. At the close 
of the season's growth the seedlings will vary from six 
or eight to thirty inches in height. The largest of these 
may, when one year old, be set in the permanent planting. 
The smaller plants must be allowed to grow in the nursery 
until they are two or three years of age. They are usually 
transplanted once while in the nursery. 

Nut-bearing trees are seldom grown extensively in 
nurseries. The trees can usually be grown more success- 
fully if the nuts are planted in the permanent site where 



324 AGRICULTURE 

the trees are to grow to maturity. These species all 
develop a strong taproot and but few lateral roots; con- 
sequently, they are difficult to transplant successfully. 

Cottonwoods and willows are propagated entirely from 
cuttings, which are sections of wood of the past season's 
growth, varying from ten to fifteen inches in length. 
These are planted in well-prepared ground in the nursery, 






Catalpa seedlings in the State Forest Nursery. 

to grow until of suitable size for permanent planting. 
These two species are propagated in this manner because 
their seeds are so small and so hard to gather and plant 
that propagating by seed is very difficult. 

Under favorable weather conditions cuttings take root 
rapidly and make a very vigorous growth. At the end of 
the first season they vary from three feet to six or eight 
feet in height, and at the age of one year are of suitable 
size to be set out permanently. 

The Size of Trees for Planting. Small trees should be 
used in extensive plantings, such as farm wood lots and 
windbreaks. Where so many are planted it would cost 
altogether too much to plant large trees. If conifers are 
to be planted, young trees two or three years old and from 
ten to fifteen inches in height should be used. They can 



GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 



325 



be planted and protected a great deal more cheaply than 
larger trees, and a larger proportion will live after being 
planted. 

If broadleaf species are used, trees from three to five 
feet in height and from one-half to three-fourths of an inch 
in diameter are usually most satis- 
factory. Smaller trees suffer more 
in the planting than do trees of 
this size. Larger trees are objec- 
tionable because of their greater cost 
and the greater expense incurred in 
planting them. 

For yard, street, or roadside plant- 
ing, where only a few trees are to be 
set out, larger trees should be used. 
Conifers from two and one-half to 
four feet in height are the most de- 
sirable, and broadleaf species should 
be eight or ten feet in height and 
one and one-half or two inches in 
diameter. 

How to Plant a Tree. The first step to insure the suc- 
cessful growth of the newly planted tree is to be sure that 
the tree is in good condition when it is planted. The tree 
must, therefore, from the time it leaves the nursery until 
it is planted, be properly handled to prevent injury by 
exposure of its roots. Nurserymen familiar with their 
business understand how to pack and handle trees without 
exposing them unduly, and the planter should be careful 
to secure his stock from the grower, rather than from tree 
peddlers or other irresponsible persons. 

On receiving trees from the nursery, one should keep 
them in a cool, moist place until they are planted. The 
first step in the actual operation of planting a tree is the 




One-, two-, and three-year-old 
ash trees. The three-year-old tree 
ia a good size for wood-lot and 
windbreak planting. The others 
are too small. 



326 AGRICULTURE 

preparation of the ground for planting. Trees require a 
loose, mellow soil. The hole in which a tree is to be set 
should be dug wide enough to receive the roots in their 
natural order, and deep enough to allow the tree to be 
planted two or three inches deeper than it grew in the 
nursery. In the bottom of the hole, there should be one or 
two inches of loose soil in which to bed the roots. After 
covering the roots with two or three inches of mellow soil, 
one should tramp it firmly over them to insure close con- 
tact of soil and roots. An inch or two of the top soil should 
be left mellow, to serve as a mulch. 

If the ground at the time of planting is in good condi- 
tion it is not necessary to pour water over the roots of the 
newly planted tree. In case the ground is dry, the hole 
should be filled with water one or two days before the 
tree is to be planted. If water is poured on dry soil 
over the roots of a newly planted tree it forms a puddle, 
which, on drying, shrinks and allows air passages to form. 
The entire body of earth around the roots is thus dried to 
such an extent that more injury is caused to the tree than 
would have occurred if no water had been applied. If the 
water is poured into the hole prior to the time of planting 
the tree, the trouble mentioned will be avoided. 

This method of planting applies to the conifers as well 
as to the broadleaf species. 

The Time of Planting. Best results are secured by 
planting trees as early in the spring as the soil and the 
climatic conditions will permit. Trees begin their growth 
very soon after the frost goes out of the ground. The 
exact time for planting varies with the seasons, but trees 
should always be planted before the buds begin to burst. 

Cultivation. The successful growth of trees depends 
almost as much upon the care and cultivation that they 



GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 



327 



receive as upon the manner in which they are planted. 
Trees require moisture in order to maintain life. This 
moisture must be secured from the soil, and any cultiva- 
tion that will conserve the soil moisture is beneficial to the 
tree. Trees respond as readily to cultivation as do any 
growing plants. Cultivation conserves moisture by pre- 
venting a growth of weeds which would use water that is 



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A wood lot having nearly a full stand of thrifty, well-developed trees of desirable species. 

needed by the tree. It also maintains a soil mulch, which 
prevents surface evaporation. Cultivation keeps the sur- 
face soil in a receptive condition for the moisture that falls 
in the form of rain and snow. Cultivation must be con- 
tinued until the trees reach a sufficient size to shade the 
ground and protect themselves. 

Protection. Newly planted evergreens must be pro- 
tected against injury by sun and wind. When planted, 
these trees are in full foliage, and are liable to injury on 



328 



AGRICULTURE 



account of excessive transpiration from the leaves, due to 
the drying effect of the wind or to the intense heat of the 
sun. Ample protection from these sources of injury can 
be provided by two boards driven in an upright position a 




A newly cut-over wood lot that should be planted in black walnut, catalpa, Cottonwood, or bur oak. 
The land is subject to occasional flooding and can not be used for growing grain crops. 

few inches back from the tree, on the south and west sides. 
These boards should be from six to eight inches wide, and, 
when driven into the ground, fully as high as the tree. 
Broadleaf trees are not so liable to suffer from wind and 
sun. 

All young trees, however, are subject to injury by ani- 
mals browsing upon them or trampling the ground about 
them. Animals of all descriptions must be excluded from 
the ground on which trees are being grown. 

During the winter months young trees are constantly 
in danger of being girdled by rabbits. For protection 
against this, the trees should either be wrapped with some 



GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 329 

protective covering, or be painted with a solution of 
common lime and sulphur. Frequently it is more practical 
to trap or poison the rabbits, or even to inclose the trees 
with a rabbit-tight fence. 

Trees Suitable for Kansas. Kansas is a large state, and 
soil conditions and rainfall vary so greatly that a list of 
trees suitable for planting must be varied to suit the 
different conditions. 

In the matter of tree growth the state should be divided 
into two parts. The eastern part should include that 
portion of the state where the annual rainfall is twenty- 
five inches or more. To this region the following trees are 
best adapted: 

Rock (sugar) maple. Sycamore. 

Red oak. Black cherry. 

Bur oak. Kentucky coffee tree. 

Pin oak. Thornless honey locust. 

Hackberry. Basswood (linden). 

White elm. Green ash. 

The evergreens suitable for the same part of the state 
are: 

White pine. White spruce. 

Norway pine. Norway spruce. 

Table Mountain pine. Douglas fir. 

W^estern yellow pine. White (silver) fir. 

Austrian pine. Chinese arbor vitse. 

Scotch pine. Bald cypress. 

Swiss Mountain pine. Red cedar. 

Colorado blue spruce. Dwarf juniper. 

The land in the western part of the state may be divided 
into two classes. The first class comprises the heavy loam 
soil. Trees suitable for planting in this soil are: 



330 AGRICULTURE 

Thornless honey locust. Osage orange. 

Hackberry. Red cedar. 

White elm. Chinese arbor vitae. 

Green ash. Scotch pine. 

Russian wild olive. Austrian pine. 

The second class includes the sandy lands composed of 
the sand-hill formation, and all the sandy soils along the 
river channels. The trees suitable for this class are : 

Hackberry. Red cedar. 

White elm. Chinese arbor vitse. 

Russian wild olive. Austrian pine. 

Russian mulberry. Scotch pine. 

Cottonwood. Jack pine. 

The conifers named in the foregoing lists are well suited 
for windbreak, shelter-belt, and ornamental planting, while 
the broadleaf species are well adapted for shade purposes. 

In the eastern division of the state the hardy catalpa 
and the Osage orange are best adapted for post and pole 
production, while the cottonwood, the black walnut, and 
the bur oak will yield a greater cut of lumber than any of 
the other trees. In the western division of Kansas the 
honey locust, the Osage orange, and the Russian mulberry 
may be used for post and pole production, and the cotton- 
wood for lumber production. 

QUESTIONS 

1. From what sources are forest trees propagated? 

2. At what seasons of the year may forest tree seeds be planted? 

3. Why is it necessary to grow seedling trees in a nursery? 
Give as many reasons as possible. 

4. For how long a time are trees grown in the nursery? 

5. What size of tree should be used (1) for evergreen windbreak 
or wood-lot planting; (2) for broadleaf windbreak or wood-lot 
planting; (3) for evergreen ornamental planting; (4) for broadleaf 
yard, street, and roadside planting? Give reasons. 

6. What care must be taken in handling the trees from the 
time they leave the nursery until they are planted? 



GROWING AND CARING FOR TREES 331 

7. Give in detail each step in planting a tree. What special 
care must be taken in each step, and why? 

8. What cultivation is necessary to secure a successful growth 
of newly planted trees? Give reasons why cultivation is necessary. 

9. Why is it necessary to protect newly planted evergreens 
from the wind and the sun? Describe the method of protecting 
the newly set trees. 

10. Make a list of five broadleaf trees suitable for wood-lot 
planting in your home community. 

11. Make a list of five broadleaf trees suitable for yard, street, 
or roadside planting in your home community. 

12. Make a list of four coniferous evergreen trees suitable for 
windbreak or ornamental planting in your home community. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

PLANT DISEASES 

Many plants of the farm and garden become sick or 
diseased and never grow into strong and healthy indivi- 
duals. They die or their products are so diseased that 
the market value is greatly lessened. 

There are scores of plant diseases in Kansas, some of 
which cause a large loss. The sorghum smut disease alone 
caused Kansas farmers to lose more than a million dollars 
in 1912. The wheat and oat smuts, corn smut, the apple 
blotch, and the dry rot of potato are other plant diseases 
which are found in Kansas and which cause large losses 
every year. 

Kinds of Diseases. The diseases of plants are due to 
various causes, such as parasitic plants, unfavorable 
climatic and soil conditions, and even injuries by animals 
or man. The first of these is by far the most common and 
important, and only diseases produced by parasitic plants 
will be considered here. 

Diseases Due to Parasitic Plants. A parasitic plant is 
one which can not obtain its own food from the soil and 
air, but grows upon and gets its nourishment from some 
other living plant. The plant upon which the parasite 
lives, called the host, often becomes diseased, because it 
is robbed of its proper share and kind of food and its mode 
of life is interfered with. 

Parasitic plants may be divided into two groups: flower- 
ing plant parasites; bacteria and fungi. 

(332) 



PLANT DISEASES 



333 



Flowering Plant Parasites. Common examples of 
flowering plant parasites are the dodder and the mistle- 
toe. The dodder, or "love vine," is widely spread in 
Kansas. It is a long, twining plant, yellowish in color. 
It wraps itself around 
the stems of clover and 
alfalfa, and by means 
of little suckers ex- 
tracts the plant juices 
for its food . This para- 
site is very injurious to 
the plants attacked, 
and often is a serious 
pest in fields. 

Mistletoe, with its 
pretty white berries— a 
plant which we see at 
Christmastide— lives a 
similar parasitic life on 
trees. It extracts the 
juices from the branches 
by means of rootlike 
suckers. This pest oc- 
curs in parts of south- 
eastern Kansas on or- 
namental and forest 
trees. 

Bacteria and Fungi. 
Bacteria and fungi form a very large group of plants 
which do not have flowers, leaves, stems, or roots. They 
have no green coloring matter, or chlorophyll, such as is 
found in the leaves of the flowering plants, and are gen- 
erally white, yellowish-brown, or black — never green. 




Dodder on alfalfa. The picture shows the parasite's 
twining habit of growth. The dodder is in full bloom. 

(After Stewart.) 



334 



AGRICULTURE 




Mistletoe on elms near Coffeyville, 
Kansas. (After Scott.) 



Because fungi and bacteria do not have this green color, 
which is the machinery of other plants for manufacturing 
food from the raw materials of air 
and soil, they can not prepare their 
own food. They therefore depend 
upon other plants or animals, either 
living or dead, for their nourish- 
ment. Those fungi and bacteria 
which get their food from living 
plants we have called parasites, 
while those which live upon dead 
plant or animal matter are called 
saprophytes. 

Bacteria, or germs, as they are 
sometimes called, are the tiniest plants known, and it is 
necessary to use a very strong magnifying glass, or lens, 

to see them. It would 

take four hundred of 

the spherical bacteria 

placed side by side in a 

row to equal in length 

the thickness of this 
They are found 
oCbngrsLT'o^^iiL'and cverywherc - in the soil, 

others spiral. ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^ WatCr, 

plants, and animals. They multiply by splitting into two 
equal parts, or cells. Each of these is again divided into 
two cells, and so the process continues. Sometimes it takes 
only half an hour for these little bacteria to split in two. 
In this way a very large number can be produced in a day. 
Most bacteria do not cause plant diseases, and some 
are very useful. One kind, as we have learned, lives in the 
roots of clover and alfalfa, and gathers plant food, known 
as free nitrogen, from the air. This is used to some extent 



000 
Oo 




0-e: 



0- 



.0 
■0 



Typical bacteria, magni- .p,oT-.Q„ 
fied two thousand times, pctptfl 



^0 



Diagram showing how bac- 
teria multiply. 



PLANT DISEASES 



335 




by the host plants. Some bacteria, however, are very 
harmful, causing diseases such as pear blight and cucum- 
ber wilt. 

Fungi also are small plants, but not so tiny as bacteria. 
Sometimes it is necessary to use a magnifying glass 
to see them. They grow as saprophytes on dead matter, 

such as rotting wood, stumps, 
stale bread, jelly, and cheese, or 
as parasites on living plants. 
Like bacteria, they do not have 
true roots or leaves, but in place 
of these is a mass of thread-like 
bodies, called mycelium, by 
means of which they absorb their 
food. Fungi do not have true 
seeds like flowering plants, but 
in their place have very tiny 
bodies called spores. These 
are so small that they can not be seen without a micro- 
scope, unless they are in large masses. The spores are 
scattered about by the wind, the water, insects, man, and 
other animals, and if they fall in damp places they grow. 
Molds, mushrooms, puffballs, corn smut, and wheat rust 
are good examples of fungi. 

Most plant diseases are caused by fungi. The rusts of 
wheat and oats, the smuts of wheat, corn, and sorghum, 
scab on potatoes, blotch on apples, brown rot on peaches, 
and the alfalfa leaf -spot disease, are well-known examples. 
Not all fungi, however, cause disease. Among those 
which do not may be mentioned bread mold, yeast, toad- 
stools, and puffballs. 

How a Simple Fungus Lives. Bread mold is one of the 
simplest of fungous plants. Its spores occur everywhere 
in the air. When they fall on moist bread they grow, pro- 



Mvcelium. Natural size. 



836 



AGRICULTURE 



ducing a white, cottony mass of thread-like filaments. On 
the ends of some of these are found little sack-like bodies. 
These sacks look black because they are filled with thou- 
sands of gray spores, which, when 
the little sacks break, escape and 
are scattered in the air. If these 
spores fall upon moist bread they 
grow, and again produce a white, 
cottony mass. Many of the fungi 
that produce diseases live just as 
simple a life as does the bread 
mold. It is very necessary to 
know how they live before methods 
of preventing diseases caused by 
them can be devised, as their man- 
ner of life determines very largely 
which of several methods of pre- 
vention is most useful. Some of 
the methods of prevention, and 
examples of diseases controlled by 
each method, are given hereafter. 

Pruning. Some diseases can be 
best controlled by cutting out and 
burning all diseased parts. If such a disease gets a 
good start the whole plant may have to be destroyed. 
The pear blight, the blister, or Illinois apple-tree canker, 
and the black knot of plum and cherry are well-known 
examples of such diseases, the first being caused by bacteria 
and the other two by fungi. 

The Pear Blight. The pear blight, known also as fire 
blight, attacks pear, apple, and quince trees. It causes a 
wilting and blackening of the flowers and the young tips 
of the twigs. Sometimes the pears or apples are half 
grown before this disease causes them to dry and shrivel 




Bread mold, showing sack-like 
bodies containing the spores, or 
"seed," of the fungus. Highly 
magnified. 



PLANT DISEASES 



337 



up into so-called "mummies." Bees and other insects 
visit diseased trees and get the bacteria on their feet, 
then fly to the blossoms of healthy trees and leave some 
of the bacteria inside 
the flowers. These flow- 
ers become infected and 
die, and the bacteria 
work their way into the 
plant juices, clogging 
the food channels in the 
twigs. Diseased twigs 
wilt and finally die. 
Some of the bacteria 
live over winter in the 
twigs, and in this way 
carry the disease over 
from year to year. To 
control the disease it is 
necessary to destroy all 
sources of infection. 
Diseased twigs, limbs, 
and "mummies" must be collected and burned, and 
sometimes whole trees must be destroyed. 

Spraying. There is no cure for fungous diseases. By 
spraying, some material poisonous to a fungus spore is 
spread as a thin film on the foliage of plants for protection. 
Germinating spores which come into contact with this 
poison are killed. Spraying, therefore, is a safeguard 
against disease rather than a cure. Three diseases com- 
mon in Kansas, which may be controlled by spraying, 
may be taken as examples. 

Early Blight of Potatoes. The early blight of potatoes 
is caused by a fungus which produces "target-board," or 
"frog-eye," markings on the surface of the leaves. The 

2? 




A pear twig affected by pear blight. 



338 



AGRICULTURE 




Potato foliage affected with early 
blight, sometimes known as "frog- 
eye" or "target-board." 



leaves die early, and later the vines dry up. Sometimes 
fifty per cent of the potato crop is lost on account of this 
fungous disease. It does not, however, cause the potato 
tuber to rot, as does another blight 
known as the late blight of potatoes. 
Spraying the plants with Bordeaux 
mixture several times during a sea- 
son will prevent both the early and 
the late potato blight. 

Apple Blotch. Apple blotch very 
frequently injures unsprayed apples 
in Kansas. It causes a more or less 
hard, jagged brown spot on the fruit, 
which sometimes cracks as a result. 
On the leaves it forms very small 
yellowish or white spots. The bark 
on the limbs becomes cracked and scaly. Often a cracked, 
roughened, ring-like area, called a canker, is formed on 
one side or surrounding the limb. Twigs, when diseased, 
show cracks in the bark. Spraying with Bordeaux mix- 
ture two or three times a season is a common preventive. 
The Brown Rot. The brown rot attacks the peach, the 
plum, and the apple, causing a soft rot. It can be con- 
trolled by careful spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur 
wash. 

Crop Rotation. Some disease- 
producing fungi live in the soil from 
one year to another, and if the same 
crop is grown on the land succes- 
sively it may become sick. When 
the soil becomes infected with such fungi it is necessary 
to change the crop grown on the land until the disease 




Brown rot of iieaches on picked 
fruit. (After Scott and Ayer.) 



PLANT DISEASES 339 

disappears. This often takes several years, and a good 
crop rotation is necessary. 

Dry Rot of Potatoes. Dry rot of potato, or stem blight, 
one of the worst potato diseases in Kansas, is caused by a 




Potato tubers affected with dry rot. The tubers are cut in two. Observe the dark areas 
within the rind. 

fungus which may live in the soil. When potatoes are 
grown on infected land the parasite gains entrance into 
the healthy plant through the roots, from which it spreads 
to the stem and leaves. Plants which are diseased wilt 
and lie limp upon the ground. The new potatoes be- 
come infected through the stems upon which they are 
growing, and the diseased tubers, when cut in two, show 
a black ring a little inside the rind. The fungus may 
live in the soil for several years, and it is necessary to 
grow some crop other than potatoes on infected land. 

Other diseases which, like the dry rot of potato, may 
live for years in the soil, are cotton wilt, flax wilt, root rot 
of tobacco, cabbage yellows, and \vilt of cowpeas. 

Seed Treatment. Some diseases are carried over from 
year to year by means of fungus spores clinging to the 
seed. These diseases can often be prevented by treating 
the seed, before planting it, with formalin, copper sulphate, 
or some other solution that is poisonous to the spores but 
will not injure the seed. Immersing the seed in warm 



340 



AGRICULTURE 



water and raising the temperature until the spores are 
killed while the seed is left uninjured, is also a common 
preventive. Potato scab and some of the common smuts 
of grain may be prevented by seed treatment. 

Smuts of Grain. The stinking smut of wheat, some- 
times called bunt, is one of the worst diseases of wheat 
in Kansas. It is caused by a tiny, 
colorless fungus, which lives inside 
the growing wheat. When the 
wheat plant is full grown the seeds 
do not develop as they should, but 
in their place is formed a smutty 
or powdery mass of spores, known 
as a smut ball. At threshing time, 
and in handling the wheat in sacks, 
bins, and machinery, the smut balls 
break very easily, and the smut 
spores are scattered over the healthy 
seed. When such seed is planted in 
the spring the tiny smut spores, which 
often are lodged in the crease or brush 
of the kernel, germinate, and a little 
smut plant enters the wheat plant- 
let and gets a foothold before the 
wheat appears above the ground. 
Here the parasite leads a hidden, 
satisfied life until the flowering time 
of the wheat, when, in place of 
sound seed, smut balls once more 
are formed. 

The covered smut of barley, the 
smut of oats, the kernel smut of 
sorghums and broom corn, and a smut of millet live in 
much the same way. All of them can be prevented by 
proper seed treatment. 





V '. M 


w 


1 


Y ^^g. 




'• :f 


1 



Wheat affected with stinking 
smut. Notice the spreading of 
the glumes due to large smut balls 
where sound kernels should be. 
Smut ball.s, whole and cut in two, 
may be seen on the right. (After 
Johnson.) 



PLANT DISEASES 



341 



Two other smuts, known as the loose smut of wheat 
and the loose smut of barley, are also very common in 
Kansas. Their mode of life is similar to that of stink- 
ing smut, but not identical with it, and they can be 
prevented only by very careful treatment of the seed 
with hot water. 

Corn smut is related to the smuts already described, 
but is not carried from year to year on the seed. Its 
spores are scattered by the wind, live over winter outside, 
and infect the growing corn 
plant in the spring. Seed 
treatment has no effect on 
com smut. 

Potato Scab. Potato scab 
is recognized by the rough 
pitting of the seed, or the 
"scabby" appearance of the 
tubers. Young potatoes show 
the scab very plainly. When 
the tubers become older they 
frequently are deeply furrowed 
or cracked. Potato scab at- 
tacks only the tuber, not the 
leaves or stalks of the plant. 
If scabby potatoes are planted 
a scabby crop may result. 
Treating the uncut potato tu- 
bers with a formalin solution 
will help prevent this disease. 

Resistant Varieties. There is great difference in the 
ability of individual plants and of different varieties of 
plants to resist disease. Sometimes a single plant out of an 
entu'e field of sick plants remains healthy and produces 
seed. Such a plant is said to be resistant to the disease. If 




A potato tuber affected with scab. 
(After Corbett.) 



342 



AGRICULTURE 



seed from such healthy plants is collected and sown the 
next year, the resulting plants may also be resistant. By 
such selection, new resistant strains may be originated. 
This has been done in the case of cotton, cowpeas, cabbage, 
and other plants. Certain varieties also are naturally 
resistant to diseases. Among these may be mentioned the 
durum wheats, which are naturally resistant to rust. 

Grain Rusts. " Rust " is the name applied to the fungus 
which often occurs as yellowish brown or black spore 
masses on the leaves and stems of small grains, such as 
wheat and oats. These spore masses, or pustules, often 
are noticed about the time when the grain begins to head. 
At first the leaves and stems show yellowish spots, but 
gradually these change to a brownish color. This is due 
to the large number of rust-colored spore masses which 
project from the surfaces of the leaf 
and the stem. These so-called 
summer spores are soon scattered 
by the wind and insects to healthy 
neighboring plants, which likewise 
become diseased. Plants attacked 
in this manner are weakened, and 
a smaller yield of grain results, as 
there is less reserve food to store in 
the seeds. 

If one examines the grain, straw, 
and stubble at harvesting time, 
black pustules may be found . These 
are filled with the so-called winter 
spores. Both the summer and the 
winter spores help tide the disease 
over from year to year. 
There are two kinds of rusts on wheat: the stem rust, 
which usually is found on the stem ; the leaf rust, occurring 




Wheat stalks affected with rust. 
(After Freeman and Johnson.) 



PLANT DISEASES 



343 



on the leaves. Both have a brown and a black spore stage. 
The stem rust is often called black rust, and is the one 
which does most damage to wheat. This rust also attacks 
barberries, and on them produces spores which again can 
infect wheat. 

Rusts can not be entirely prevented. Neither spraying 
nor seed treatment is beneficial. The growing of varieties 
that are resistant to rusts is perhaps the only method of 
prevention. 

Wilt of Cowpeas. Wilt of cowpeas is a disease which 
causes the leaves to drop and the stems to dry and become 




Cowpeas on wilt-infected soil. Notice the healthy wilt-resistant variety on the right and the 
left, and the diseased non-resistant variety in the middle. ( After Orton. ) 

covered with a pink fungus. This fungus may live in the 
soil for many years. A resistant variety of cowpeas has 
been grown, and whether the seed of this is planted on dis- 
eased soil or not, the seed sprouts and develops into a 
strong, healthy plant. Such plants can grow next to dis- 
eased ones in the same row and still remain healthy. 
A disease-resistant variety of cabbage has likewise been 



344 AGRICULTURE 

grown. Previously, all cabbages grown on soil which con- 
tained the disease-producing fungus would become dis- 
eased, and the crop would be a total loss. Patient, careful, 
and observant work on the part of the plant breeder 
brought forth a resistant variety. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat are some causes of plant disease? Which of these is 
most important? 

2. What is a parasitic plant? Name two distinct groups of 
parasitic plants. 

3. Give an example of a parasitic flowering plant. Discuss its. 
economic importance. 

4. Are bacteria plants or animals? Are all bacteria harmful? 
How do bacteria grow and reproduce? 

5. What is^a fungus? What is a saprophytic fungus? a para- 
s.t.c fungus? 

6. Describe a simple fungus. How does it grow and reproduce? 

7. How may plant diseases be controlled? Can a plant be cured 
if it is once diseased? 

8. How could you recognize pear blight if you saw it? What 
is the treatment for it? 

9. If some one asked you how to ascertain the presence of early 
blight of potatoes as it occurs in the field, what would be your an- 
swer? What treatment would you advise? 

10. Describe a disease which attacks the peach. What other 
fruits may be attacked by this disease, and what can be done to 
prevent it? 

11. Name some diseases controlled by seed treatment. What 
are some common solutions used? 

12. Describe the stinking smut of wheat. Name some other 
smut diseases that attack grain. 

13. How would you recognize the potato scab? What treatment 
would you give the seed before planting it? 

14. What do you understand by a plant's being resistant to dis- 
ease? Of what value is this to the farmer? 

15. Describe the wheat rust. Is this a plant disease easily con- 
trolled? 

16. In replanting cowpeas in a field which formerly produced a 
crop affected by wilt, what kind would you plant? Why? 



CHAPTER XXX 

INSECTS ON THE FARM 

Insects cause in Kansas an annual loss of not less than 
$40,000,000. This is more than three times the amount 
that is spent each year, not only on the education of the 
boys and girls and young men and women in the state, 
including those in the public schools, colleges, universities, 
and all private schools, but also on the upkeep of the 
buildings and the erection of new buildings. 

The farmer needs no argum.ent to convince him that 
insects are injurious to farm crops, because they feed on 
plants, stored products, and domestic animals. Even his 
own health and comfort are affected by these creatures. 
He may be surprised, however, to learn that the injuries 
caused by insects equal at least ten per cent of the value 
of all farm crops. 

One must not think that all insects on the farm are 
harmful, for many of them are very useful. Some, such 
as the honeybee, contribute directly to the wealth of 
the state. Other insects contribute indirectly to the in- 
terests of mankind. For example, in carrying pollen from 
flower to flower and thus causing the flowers to fruit, 
insects are of great value to the farmer. Without the bum- 
blebee and some other insects we should not be able to 
grow clover, because the plant could not produce clover 
seed. Again, there are many species of insects which are 
especially useful to man because they feed upon and with- 
in the bodies of other insects and thus are the most im- 
portant factor in the natural control of harmful insects. 

The Structure and Growth of Insects. All insects have 
three distinct regions of the body: first, the fore part, 

(345) 



346 AGRICULTURE 

or head; second, the middle part, or thorax; and thu'd, the 
back part, or abdomen. They always have three pairs of 
legs, one pair of feelers called antennae, and usually one 
or two pairs of wings. The legs and the wings are always 
attached to the thorax. Spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions, 
and sow bugs are not insects, but are related to them. 
They have four or more pairs of legs, and never have 
wings. 

An insect does not have nostrils or any opening in its 
head through which it breathes. Instead there is a row 
of small openings, called spiracles, down each side of the 
body. Through these the air passes into air tubes, which 
branch and run to all parts of the body. 

How an Insect Eats. A large number of insects eat 
their food by biting it, while, on the other hand, a great 
many take their food by sucking it up in a liquid form. If, 
for example, the mouth parts of a grasshopper are exam- 
ined, it will be found that there is a distinct pair of jaws 
adapted for biting and chewing. Insects of this class bite 
off a portion of the leaf or plant and swallow it. If the 
head of a squash bug is examined, no jaws will be found. 
Instead there is a stout beak fitted for piercing and suck- 
ing. As this insect feeds, the beak is thrust down through 
the outer layer of the bark or leaf into the soft, juicy tissue 
beneath and the plant sap extracted. 

It is necessary to know how insects take their food, for 
by knowing this we are able oftentimes to destroy them. 
Insects with biting mouth parts may be killed by a stomach 
poison, such as some suitable form of arsenic, placed upon 
the plant on which they are feeding. On the other hand, 
insects with sucking mouth parts can not be harmed by 
poisons on the surface of the leaves on which they feed, 
because they do not swallow any of the solid part of the 
plant. For this class of insects, sprays must be used which 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



347 



close the breathing 
pores of the insect or 
kill by caustic, or burn- 
ing, action on the body 
of the insect. 

Changes of Form in 
the Growth of Insects. 
Insects in their develop- 
ment from the egg to 
the adult undergo va- 
rious changes. In some 
groups the changes are 
not complete, while in 
other groups they are 
so distinct that one 
stage does not resemble 
the one preceding or 
following it. For ex- 
ample, the egg of a 
grasshopper produces a 
creature which, except 
for the absence of 
wings, resembles the 
adult. This form, 
known as the nymph, 
is the growing stage. It 
sheds its skin, or molts, 
several times before it 
develops into a grown grasshopper. Such an insect 
passes through incomplete changes. Grasshoppers, chinch 
bugs, and dragon flies belong to this class. 

On the other hand, the egg of a moth hatches into a 
caterpillar, which is the active feeding stage, or the stage 
in which the insect does its serious injury to plants. The 




The changes that take place in the life cycle of a grass- 
hopper. 



348 



AGRICULTURE 



caterpillar sheds its skin several times before it is fully- 
grown. When full-grown it spins a casing of silk, known 
as a cocoon. In this protective case it transforms into 
the third stage, which is called a pupa. This is the in- 
active, or dormant, stage of its development, and in this 
stage it takes no food. The pupa does not resemble the 




The changes that take place in the life cycle of a butterfly. A, egg in natural position; twelve times 
natural size. B, larva or caterpillar; C, pupa; I), adult; all 1} 2 times natural size. 

caterpillar from which it came nor the moth into which it 
will later develop. In many cases the winter is passed 
in this stage, so that the pupal stage varies from a few 
days in summer to several months in winter. Finally 
the shell splits open and the moth emerges with wings 
which are soft and limp but which expand and harden in 
a few hours. The forms of the insect in these stages are 
so different that without experience one would not know 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 349 

that they belonged to the same individual. Such an in- 
sect undergoes distinct or complete changes. Butterflies, 
beetles, house flies, bees and ants belong to the class. 
The growing stage of all insects that undergo the distinct 
changes is the larval stage, which is the caterpillar stage of 
the butterfly or moth, the maggot stage of the house fly, 
and the grub stage of the May beetle and of the honeybee. 

FIELD, GARDEN, AND ORCHARD INSECTS 

Before we can control insects, we must learn when and 
where they lay their eggs, when the eggs hatch, into what 
forms they develop, what the insects feed upon, where and 
at what stage they pass the winter, and how many genera- 
tions are produced each year. 

The Chinch Bug. The chinch bug is the most injurious 
insect, attacking growing corn, wheat, and oats. This, 
insect passes the winter as an adult in a clump of grass, in 
a corns hock, or under almost any kind of rubbish. In 
regions where the clump-forming grasses are common, 
most of the bugs seek winter quarters in such places. They 
leave their winter quarters from March to May, and move 
to the fields of small grain. Here the females lay their 
eggs upon the roots or the leaf sheaths of the plants. These 
eggs hatch in from two to three weeks, and the young bugs 
feed on the small grain until it is ripe or harvested, when 
they migrate to the cornfields. Here they reach maturity, 
and then lay eggs on the corn plants or on the grasses and 
weeds in the cornfields. The eggs hatch in about two- 
weelvs, and the second brood feeds and matures in the corn- 
fields. Generally all the bugs have reached maturity by 
the last of September. When the food gives out, or when 
cold weather sets in, the adults seek their winter quarters. 

There are two times in the year when the chinch bug 
can be successfully controlled. The first is in the summer 
when the bugs migrate from the small grain to corn, and 



850 AGRICULTURE 

the other is in the fall after the bugs have gone into winter 
quarters. In fighting the chinch bug in summer, barriers 
over which the bugs can not pass are set up. The kind of 
barrier used depends on the weather. In dry weather the 
barrier is a deep furrow extending around the infested field, 
and made just before harvest. The sides and bottom of the 
furrow are reduced to a fine dust by a heavy log dragged 
back and forth in the furrow. The furrow should be 
dragged every day during the migration, and the bugs 
should be burned in the furrow with a gasoline torch. In 
wet weather it is necessary to run a barrier of coal tar or 
No. 7 road oil around the infested field. Post holes are 
dug at intervals of twenty feet along the inside of this 
barrier, and the bugs, on being trapped in these holes, are 
destroyed by kerosene. 

Winter destruction, in areas where clump-forming 
grasses are the principal cover, involves the thorough 
burning of these grasses in the fall. When bugs are found 
hibernating in corn shocks and under leaves and rubbish, 
clean culture should be practiced, and all these places 
should be cleaned up during the fall. 

The Corn-ear Worm. The corn-ear worm is widely 
distributed in Kansas, and with the exception of the 
chinch bug is the most injurious insect attacking corn. 
In some years it does more damage than the chinch bug. 
It passes the winter as a pupa located in a cell from 
three to five inches beneath the surface of the ground 
in cornfields. The buff-colored moths emerge early 
in June, and deposit their eggs, principally on the up- 
per surface of corn plants. The eggs hatch in a few 
days, and the worms feed in the curl of the corn for 
about seventeen days, when they reach full growth and 
enter the soil to pupate. The pupal stage lasts about 
two weeks, and the second brood of moths is out early 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



351 



in July. The eggs of the second brood are deposited on 
the leaves and the early corn silks, and the worms 
feed in the curl, the tassel, or the ear. The third brood 
of moths is 
out about the 
middle of 
August, and 
the eggs are 
laid for the 
most part on 
the silks. It 
is this brood 
that does 
great dam- 
age, because 
practically 
all the worms 
feed within 
the ear. 

The corn- 
ear worm is 




Pupa of the corn-ear worm in its pupal cell, or burrow, in the soil. About 
natural size. (After Quaintance and Brues.) 



one of the most difficult of 
insect pests to control. It 
has been found that the 
fall plowing of the corn- 
fields destroys practically 
all the pupae of this insect. 
It is possible to reduce 
the injury from twenty-five 
to forty per cent by early 
planting, so that the plants 
will have passed the silking stage before the insects 
emerge. One may protect sweet corn by keeping the silks 
dusted with powdered arsenate of lead from the time 




Corn-ear worm moth with wings expanded. 
Natural size. 



352 



AGRICULTURE 



when they first 
appear until the 
corn is ready for 
market. 



The Hessian 
Fly. The Hessian 
fly, with the exception of the 




Corn-ear worm. Twice natural size. 

chinch bug, is the most 
injurious insect attacking wheat. In one recent season 

this insect 
caused a loss 
of fully 
twelve mil- 
lion bushels 
of wheat in 
Kansas. The 
adult flies, 
which emerge 
the last of 
August and 
during Sep- 
tember, de- 
posit their 
eggs on the 
leaves of the 
young wheat 
plants. The 
adults live 
but a few 
days, and 
during this 
time each fe- 
male deposits 

Corn silks, showing eggs of the corn-ear worm moth, shghtly enlarged. bctWCCn 150 
In the upper left-hand corner are two eggs greatly enlarged. 





6 S-^-J^- 

THE CHINCH BUG 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



353 



and 300 eggs. The eggs hatch in from three to seven 
days, and the young maggots work their way down be- 
tween the leaf sheath and the stem, to the crown of the 




Corn, showing work of the corn-ear worm. 

plant. Here they feed on the juices of the plant, 
causing it to turn yellow and to die. In about four weeks 
they reach their full growth and develop into brown ob- 
jects called ''flaxseeds." The winter is passed in this 
stage, and adult flies emerge in the spring as soon 
as the weather becomes warm. The eggs are laid on 

The chinch bug: 1, egg just after it is laid; 2, egg just before it 
is ready to hatch; 3, eggshell after hatching; 4, young bug just after 
hatching; 5, young bug after first molt; 6, young bug after second 
molt; 7, young bug after third molt; 8, adult bug (all twelve times 
natural size) ; 9, wheat plant showing eggs and young bugs in nat- 
ural position (natural size). 

23 



354 



AGRICULTURE 















■ '':'MZ 












.M. 




— "::5i 






^ 


\ 


w 


t 


■ 




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'■■^x 


■n, 


^^^~if2: 




A 


X. 


J 




1 ^ 





Male and female Hessian fly. .1, male; S. female. Seven times natural size. 

the leaves, and the maggots may be found working 
either at the crown of the plant or at one of the 
joints, generally the first or second. Here they weaken 
the stem and cause it to lop. These maggots reach ma- 
turity in about four weeks, or a short time before harvest. 
They transform to pupae and remain in the stubble until 




Map of Kansas showing dates of safe sowing, calculated directly from 1907-1908, 1908-1909, 
1909-1910, 1910-1911, 1911-1912, ami 1912-1913 experimental sowings. 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



J55 



the latter part of August, at which time they emerge as 
adults. 

The principal means of controlling the fly are thor- 
ough preparation of the seed bed, destruction of vol- 
unteer wheat, which serves to carry the fly over to the 
main crop, and late plant- 
ing. Where wheat is to be 
planted on land which was 
infested with fly the pre- 
vious year, the ground 
should be disked imme- 
diately after harvest in 
order to throw out and 
expose the flaxseeds to 
natural enemies, and should 
be plowed about six inches 
deep three or four weeks 
later. The field should 
then be harrowed and 
packed, and a dust mulch 
maintained until the time 
of planting. The sowing 
should be delayed two or 
three weeks after the usual 
date of planting. 

Grasshoppers. Grass- 
hoppers are among the most 
destructive of pests on the 
farms in the western half of the state, and almost every 
season they seriously injure crops. The young hoppers 
appear early in the summer. At this time they are small 
and have no wings, but otherwise resemble the adults. 
By about midsummer their wings are fully developed, and 




Hessian fly puparia, or flaxseeds, in posi- 
tion between leaf sheath and stalk. Twice 
natural size. 



356 



AGRICULTURE 



during the latter part of the 
summer the females lay their 
eggs. The eggs are laid in pod- 
shaped masses about an inch 
below the surface of the 
ground, where they remain 
throughout the winter. With 
the coming of warm spring 
weather they hatch, and the 
young come to the surface, 
where they feed on growing 
crops and grasses. Pasture 
land, roadsides, undisturbed 
places, and alfalfa fields are 
favorable places for egg 
laying. 

One of the best times in which to attack the grass- 
hoppers is in the egg stage. So far as possible, all suit- 
able breeding places should be plowed in the late fall. 




Hessian fly eggs in natural position on 
wheat blade. Eight times natural size. 




A cornfield being destroyed by grasshoppers. 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



357 




Potato plant, showing Colorado potato beetle at work: a, beetle; 6ii, egg masses; co, hall-grown 
larvs; dd, mature larvse. Slightly enlarged. (After Chittenden.) 

Alfalfa should be disked in the fall. Plowing and disking 
break up and turn out a large portion of the egg-packets, 
so that they are exposed to the weather and to natural 
enemies, such as parasitic and predaceous insects and birds. 
After the eggs have hatched and the grasshoppers are 
destroying the crops, two methods of direct control are in 
general use — the distribution of a poisoned bran mash 
broadcast over the infested places, and the catching of 



358 



AGRICULTURE 



the grasshoppers in a mechanical device known as a hop- 
perdozer. Poisoned bran mash, which has proved very 
effectual, consists of twenty pounds of bran, one pound of 
Paris green, two quarts of syrup, three oranges or lemons, 
and three and one-half gallons of water. This is made 
into a mash and scattered broadcast in such a manner as 
to cover five acres with the amount specified in the formula. 
The Colorado Potato Beetle. The Colorado potato 
beetle, a native of the Rocky Mountain region, once satis- 
fied with feeding upon various weeds, such as the Colorado 




Cantaloupe leaves, showing curling caused by melon louse; lice on lower surfaces. Slightly reduced. 
(After Chittenden.) 

thistle, is now found feeding on potato vines in practically 
every part of Kansas where potatoes are grown. 

In the fall the adult beetles enter the ground and there 
hibernate until the warm days of spring, when the beetles 
come out from their winter quarters. As soon as the 
potato plants appear the female beetles begin laying their 
yellow eggs in masses on the under sides of the leaves. The 
female lays on an average about five hundred eggs. The 
adult beetles do considerable damage by eating the tender 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



359 



plants. In about a week the eggs hatch, and the hungiy 
larvae devour the plants and increase in size very rapidly. 
In about three weeks they are full-grown, and enter the 
ground to pupate. In less than two weeks the adult 
beetles of the second generation appear. The Colorado 
potato beetle is two-brooded in Kansas. 

Poisoning by means of Paris green has long been known 
to be effectual and practical. From one to two pounds of 
Paris green, with an equal amount of freshly slaked lime, 
to fifty gallons of water, applied as a spray, will kill the 




Melon louse: a, winged female; 06, dark female (side view), sucking sap from leaf; b, young louse; 
c, last stage of immature louse; d, wingless female. All greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden.) 

larvae. For small areas the Paris green may be used dry 
if mixed with fifty times its weight of dry flour or air- 
slaked lime. This dust should be applied, either by means 
of a perforated can or by means of a powder gun, while 
the plants are still wet with dew. 

The Melon Louse. The melon louse is a small, soft- 
bodied, greenish insect that causes the leaves of cucumber 



360 AGRICULTURE 

and melon vines to curl, dry up, and die. One must not 
think that because these green lice are so small they are 
insignificant and will not injure vigorous plants. If they 
were only in small numbers, they would not be serious; 




Cabbage butterfly resting on cabbage leaf. Natural size. 

but, when millions upon millions of them are at work, and 
when the whole of the lower surface of each leaf is covered, 
the plants are soon killed. 

During the early spring the lice suck the juice of various 
weeds, but with the growth of melons and cucumbers the 
winged forms make their way to the patches. They seek 
the under surf aces of the leaves and there begin to suck the 
sap and bear living young. If the grower is not watching 
his plants closely, the lice may get a start and do much 
damage before he knows that anything has happened. 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



361 



As soon as the lice are discovered tliey should be thor- 
oughly sprayed with a soapy spray. This spray, which is 
prepared by dissolving one pound of common laundry soap 




Cabbage plant, showing work of the cabbage worm. 

in six gallons of water, must be applied by means of a 
spraying apparatus in such a manner as actually to strike 
or wet every insect. When there are several plants to be 
sprayed, the common knapsack sprayer is best. The ex- 
tension rod furnished with this sprayer should be replaced 
by one long enough to reach from the hand to the ground 
without one's stooping. The lower end should be turned 
up at an angle of from forty to ninety degrees and capped 
with a fine-holed nozzle. With this equipment the spray 
can be easily and thoroughly applied to the under sides 
of the leaves, where the lice congregate. 



362 



AGRICULTURE 



The Cabbage Butterfly. One of the best-known garden 
insects and the worst pest of the cabbage is the common 
cabbage worm, whose parent is the common white butter- 
fly. The butterflies are observed hovering over cabbages 
and cauliflowers all through the summer. The small 
yellowish eggs are laid on the foliage and hatch in from 
four to eight days. The velvety green worms grow very 




Apple branches. A, uninfested; B, incrusted with San Jose scale. Slightly reduced. 

rapidly, eating large, irregular holes in the leaves of the 
plants and disfiguring the heads by deposits of excrement. 
The pupa is attached to the foliage by a strand of silk 
around the thorax. The pupa is first greenish and later 
light-brown in color. The whole life cycle in summer 
requires from three to five weeks. The winter is passed in 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



863 



the pupal stage, the pupae being attached to the old cab- 
bage stumps and rubbish in the fields. 

All rubbish on the field to which the pupsG are attached 
should be burned either in the fall or early in the spring. 

The most effective means of control is spraying or dust- 
ing with Paris green or arsenate of lead. The arsenate of 




A portion of the incrusted apple branch in the preceding picture. Twenty-two 
times natural size. 

lead should be used at the rate of two or three pounds to 
fifty gallons of water. Arsenicals can be used safely on 
cabbages until the heads are half formed. Since the leaves 
of cabbages are very smooth, it is advisable to add two or 
three pounds of resin soap, or "sticker," so that the spray 
will not run off the leaves. 

The San Jos« Scale. The San Jose scale, a serious pest 
of fruit trees and ornamental trees, is not generally dis- 
tributed over Kansas, but is found in more than a dozen 
localities representing the principal fruit districts. 

The San Jose scale is a flat, circular, scale-like object, 
bearing at its center a little point surrounded by a circular 



364 



AGRICULTURE 



groove. It lies flat upon the bark, and ranges from a tiny- 
point to the size of an ordinary pinhead, depending on 
the degree of development. Beneath the protective scale- 
like covering is a lemon -yellow, soft-bodied object — the 
real insect. It passes the winter in a dormant state as a 
three-fourths grown insect lying fiat on the bark. With 
the flow of sap in the 
spring, it begins to suck 
the sap from the tree or 
shrub and continues to 
grow. About the first 
of June it is fully grown, 
and then it begins to 
give birth to living 
young, and continues 
this at the rate of nine 
or ten a day for a period 
of six weeks. The young 
scales reach maturity 
and begin to bear living young in about one month 
from the date of their birth. There are four genera- 
tions of the San Jose scale in one season, and it has been 
estimated that the progeny of a single female, if none were 
destroyed, would amount to about 3,216,000,000 indi- 
viduals in a single year. 

San Jose scale may attack many kinds of trees, shrubs, 
and vines, but is primarily a pest of fruit trees, peach 
trees being most liable to serious infestation. Fruit trees 
and many shrubs can not be grown successfully where the 
scale has secured a foothold if no effective efforts are made 
to control it. 

That San Jose scale can be controlled has been thor- 
oughly demonstrated by thousands of fruit growers. 
Some of the general steps in this process are, first, to cut 




Apple infested with San Jose scale. Natural size. 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



365 




Codling moth. The one with the wings expanded is two times natural 
size. The one resting on the apple is in the natural position and is nat- 
ural size. (After Slingerland.) 



and burn all hopelessly infested plants; second, to prune 
carefully all plants that can be saved,, and burn the prun- 
ings; third, 
during the 
dormant con- 
dition to spray 
the trees thor- 
oughly with 
lime-sulphur; 
fourth, to con- 
t i n u e this 
treatment year 
after year so 
long as any 
trace of the scale can be detected. 

The Codling Moth. The codling moth is the worst pest 
of the apple, and is present in Kansas wherever apples 
are grown. 

The moths ap- 
pear early in the 
spring and lay 
their eggs on the 
leaves about two 
weeks after apples 
are in bloom. 
When the eggs 
hatch, the young 
larvse feed for a 
short time on the 
foliage and then 
make their way to 
the nearest apples 

dllU UOltJlIlLO A wormy apple, showing the familiar mass of brown parti- 

fVx-iTvi ncnollTT cif cles thrown out of the blossom end by the young larva. 
tnem, usually at (After Slingerland.) 




366 



AGRICULTURE 




A codling moth larva. Two 
and one-half times natural size. 



the blossom end. Until they are 
full-grown they feed about the cores 
of the apples. During June and July 
they emerge from the apples to pu- 
pate under the loose scales of the 
bark or in loose trash on the ground. 




Pupa of codling moth in cocoon 
on under side of loose bark. Twice 
natural size. (After Slingerland.) 



In a short time the moths again 
appear, and start laying eggs 
for the second generation of lar- 
vae. This time the greater num- 
ber of eggs are desposited on the 
fruit, and the larvae bore into 
the fruit through the side as 
well as at the blossom end. Here 
they feed until they are ma- 
ture, and then eat their way 
out, travel to a suitable shelter, 
and spin their cocoons. They remain as larvae in the 
cocoons, pupating the next spring. 

The method of controlling the codling moth consists in 
spraying with lead arsenate at the rate of from two to three 
pounds to fifty gallons of water. The most important 
point is to apply the spray just after the blossoms fall, 
while the calyx cup is still open, and to direct the spray 
so that the poison will lodge in the blossom ends of the 
upturned apples. This should be followed in three weeks 
by a second spray when the worms are just hatching. For 
the second brood, a treatment should be applied about ten 
weeds after the first spraying. 

Useful Insects. There are many species of insects, as 
the predaceous and the parasitic insects, which are useful 
because they prey upon injurious insects. Others are use- 
ful because they supply food, as does the honeybee. Still 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



367 



others are very beneficial in carrying pollen from flower to 
flower, as do the wild bee and the honeybee. 

Insects which attack other insects, devouring them 
bodily, tearing them to pieces, or sucking their life blood, 
are called predaceous. Good examples of these are lady- 




Work of the codling moth larva in an apple. Natural size, (.\ftcr Slingcrland.) 

birds, dragon flies, ground bettles, robber flies, lacewings, 
and tiger bettles. 

Parasitic insects differ from predaceous ones in that 
they spend all or a large part of their life cycle within the 
bodies of their victims, and thus destroy them. Such are 
ichneumon flies, braconids, chalcis flies, tachina flies, and 
bee flies. 

Predaceous and parasitic insects are very great in num- 
'ber, both of individuals and of species. They are the most 



368 



AGRICULTURE 



destructive foes of insect life. Were it not for these insects, 
which feed upon injurious ones, the loss to crops would dc 
much greater than it is, and in many cases it would be 
almost futile to attempt to check injurious insects. 

PREVENTING AND CONTROLLING INSECT INJURIES 

Clean Farming. Above everything else in preventing 
insect injuries, is cleanliness on the farm. This means 

clean culture, destruction 
of weeds, removal of crop 
remnants as soon as the 
crop is gathered, and 
burning the rubbish that 
encumbers the ground in 
winter. The one object 
of the farmer should be 
to destroy all hiding 
places that may be of 
service to the insects for 
winter quarters. This 
will go far toward free- 
ing the farm, the or- 
chard, and the garden 
from insects. 

Fall Plowing and Disk- 
ing. Many injurious .n- 

Two common species of ladybird beetles' a and , 

fc, adults; c and d, larvse. Much enlarged. (After SectS, SUCh aS CUtWOrmS, 
Chittenden. ) 

corn-ear worms, wire- 
worms, and white grubs, pass the winter as larvae and 
pupae in the soil, or hibernate around the roots of weeds 
and grasses. Breaking up the soil in the late fall and ex- 
posing these wintering forms to natural enemies and to the 
weather will greatly reduce the number. Disking alfalfa 




INSECTS ON THE FARM 



369 



in the fall is an effective method of controlling grass- 
hoppers, army worms, and cutworms. 

Selection of Place and Time of Planting. Too many 
times corn or other cereals are planted in places where they 
will be subjected to the attack of insects that are already 
present. Corn following grass or clover sod is likely to be 
attacked by cutworms and white grubs, and if planted in 




The farmer's friend, the redtailed tachina fly: a, fly, natural size; 6, fly, much enlarged; c, army 
worm on which the fly has laid eggs (natural size); dd, same, much enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 

marshy tracts, is in danger of injury from wireworms and 
billbugs. 

Planting at the proper time is a protection to many 
crops. Over a large area wheat sown after the first week 
in October is usually free from the attack of the Hessian 
fly. Early planting and good cultivation form one of the 
best means of enabling the farmer to avoid serious damage 
from the cotton boll weevil. 

Crop Rotation. By a thorough system of crop rotation 
the increase of many insect pests may be checked or pre- 

?4 



370 



AGRICULTURE 



vented. Such a system will starve out an insect like the 
western corn-root worm, which is never injurious to the 
corn after the land has been in small grain. White grubs, 
cutworms, wireworms, plant lice, and the Hessian fly may 
be controlled in this manner. 

The Soil. Thorough preparation of the soil induces 
rapid growth and thrifty, vigorous plants, which are not 
susceptible to injury from insects. It also disturbs and 
exposes the insects that are in the ground. 

Stimulating the growth of the plant and keeping it in a 
thrifty, growing condition will make it better able to resist 
the attacks of insects. Plants in a weak condition, with 
no vitality, soon succumb to the attack of an insect enemy. 




Green bug parasite in the act of depositing an egg in the body of the green bug, or grain 
aphis. Much enlarged. (After Webster.) 

A good stand and healthy growth of plants lessen the 
danger of injurious insects. The field partly grown up 
with foreign weeds and grasses will produce pests that 
will later get on the planted crops. 

Poultry and Other Birds. Chickens, guineas, ducks, 
turkeys, and geese are continually in search of insects that 
may be found upon low plants, in grasses, among weeds, 
and under rubbish and fallen leaves. Grasshoppers have 
been controlled by these fowls. 

Inasmuch as birds depend very largely on insects for 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 371 

food, they constitute one of the most valuable means of 
controlling insects. Were it not for the birds the loss from 
the depredations of insects would be very much greater. 
America is fortunate in having a large number of birds, 
and of these very few indeed are destructive to farm or 
orchard crops. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what ways are insects injurious? 

2. Name the parts of an insect's body. How do insects differ 
from spiders? 

3. How do insects breathe? In what two ways do insects eat? 

4. Describe in order the changes or stages in the life history of 
a grasshopper; of a moth. In what stages do insects grow? In 
what stages are they most injurious? 

5. Why should the farmer know the life histories of injurious 
insects? 

6. Give carefully the life history of the chinch bug, telling 
clearly how it spends the winter and how it migrates in summer. 
Give directions for controlling this pest. 

7. Where are the eggs which produce the corn-ear worm 
deposited? How many generations occur in a summer? How may 
this insect be controlled? 

8. Tell fully and specifically the life history of the Hessian fly. 
How and to what extent is this insect injurious? What methods 
are used to control it? Why are these means effective? 

9. Where do grasshoppers deposit their eggs? When do grass- 
hoppers become destructive? How may these pests be destroyed? 

10. How do potato beetles spend the winter? How do they 
multiply during the summer? What measures are used to control 
them? 

11. How does the melon louse get its food? Why is this louse so 
injurious to plants? How is it destroyed? Why are these measures 
necessary? 

12. Give the life history of the cabbage worm. How may the 
gardener protect his cabbage from this insect? 

13. Why is the San Jose scale considered so dangerous? How 
does it multiply and spread? What do orchardists use in their 
attempts to control this insect? 

14. Give the life history of the codling moth. Give all the 
methods which should be used to protect the crop from this moth. 

15. In what ways may insects be useful? Give examples. 

16. Give the general measures of prevention and control that 
farmers may use in their struggle with insects. Explain why these 
measures are effective. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

SPRAYING 

One of the most important but very recent general 
methods of controlhng insect pests and fungous diseases 
consists in applying to the surfaces of plants, substances 
that will kill the insects and the spores of the fungi. 

A substance that destroys insects is called an insecti- 
cide, while a compound that controls fungous diseases is 
called a fungicide. 

Sprays. Sprays have been used by gardeners and 
florists for a long time. The old-time gardener used to 
distribute the liquid substances with a syringe and the 
powder substances with a bellows, and he called the proc- 
esses "syringing" and "dusting." For very many years 
grape growers have dusted sulphur upon their vines to 
prevent mildew, and florists have killed plant lice with 
soapsuds and decoctions of tobacco. 

About 1870 the Colorado potato beetle became very 
numerous and caused heavy losses to potato growers. 
A cheap poison was needed, and Paris green was found 
very effective in killing the insect. It was mixed with 
flour or lime and dusted upon the plants, or mixed with 
water and sprinkled on the plants from a watering pot or 
spattered on them with a whisk broom. Too much of this 
poison injured the tissue of the leaves, and the problem was 
presented of distributing the material evenly over the 
surface and in sufficient quantity to kill the insect with- 
out injuring the plant. Success in controlling the potato 
beetle suggested the use of sprays for other insects. 

(372) 



SPRAYING 373 

Bordeaux Mixture. The discovery of the value of cop- 
per as a fungicide was accidental. The downy mildew of 
the gi'ape made its first appearance in France in the 
vineyards near Bordeaux, about 1878. The disease in- 
creased until, in 1882, great destruction resulted. The 
foliage of the vines dropped, which prevented the 
ripening of the grapes. It was noticed, however, along 
certain highways, that some vines retained their foliage in 
almost perfect condition. Vineyardists in these localities 
had suffered losses through the theft of their grapes by 
boys and travelers. It had been the custom to sprinkle 
verdigris, a poisonous compound of copper, upon the rows 
of vines near the road, to give the fruit the appearance 
of having been poisoned. Several years before the ap- 
pearance of the mildew, verdigris had been replaced, for 
reasons of economy, by a mixture of milk of lime and 
copper sulphate. The vines thus treated were the ones 
which retained their foliage in 1882. As lime had been 
tried before without success, the beneficial action was 
ascribed to the copper. Two scientists, having made ob- 
servations, experimented with copper, and established 
the value of the fungicide, which, in a modified form, is 
used very widely and is known as the Bordeaux mixture. 

These were the beginnings of the modern methods of 
spraying. So great has been progress in recent years 
that to-day it is almost as common among orchardists to 
spray as it is to prune. 

What Insecticides to Use. For biting insects, such as 
the potato beetle and the codling moth, some compound 
of arsenic is generally used. Arsenate of lead and Paris 
green are cheap and satisfactory forms. Paris green is 
speedier in action, and is less adhesive to the plants, 
but is more liable to injure the plant tissue than is arsenate 



374 



AGRICULTURE 




A power sprayer in the orchard. The spray material is forced upon the trees in a fine mist. 

of lead. When cankerworms are very thick and must be 
destroyed quickly, a mixture of the two is frequently used. 
In such a case the spray is made up of two pounds of 
arsenate of lead and one-half pound of Paris green to fifty 
gallons ofwater. 

Sucking insects are killed by the application of ma- 
terials which destroy the body tissue of the insect, or 
which smother the insect by closing its breathing tubes. 
Of this type of insect the San Jose scale is perhaps the 
most notable example. It is most effectively controlled 
by coating the plants with a combination of lime and sul- 
phur known as lime-sulphur wash. 

There are many species of plant lice which cause very 
serious loss. The green melon louse and the bi'own plum 
louse are very common, and occasionally the apple aphid 



SPRAYING 375 

is so numerous in early spring as seriously to injure the 
young fruit buds. 

Spraying for Fungous Diseases. Fungous diseases 
which develop large numbers of spores are controlled in 
large measure by coating the surface of the plants liable to 
infection, with a thin film containing some substance which 
destroys the spore or the first growth that develops from 
it. The young spore is so much more delicate than the 
plant upon which it is growing that it is possible to use 
chemicals sufficiently strong to destroy the fungous tissue 
without injuring the plant. 

Weather conditions must be observed carefully before 
applying these mixtures, as moist weather affects the 
copper solutions in such way as to cause "spray burn " 
and the lime-sulphur wash may be injurious in very dry, 
hot weather. 

A number of copper compounds are used. The most 
common of these is copper sulphate, which is used alone 
dissolved in water, or in the combination with lime 
which, as has been stated, is called the Bordeaux mixture. 
This mixture leaves a light blue deposit upon the plant 
tissue. When this is particularly undesirable, as it is 
with flowers or ripening fruits, a colorless compound 
known as the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate 
is used. This solution is prepared by dissolving three 
ounces of copper carbonate in one quart of ammonia 
(22° Baume) and diluting this with twenty-five gallons 
of water. 

Spraying Equipment. The spraying equipment neces- 
sary for outdoor work is a good pump with sufficient power 
to reduce the mixture to a very fine spray through a nozzle 
that distributes it evenly. The amount of power required 
varies with the operation £ind the mixture to be applied. 



376 AGRICULTURE 

In applying fungicides and insecticides that are liable to 
injure the plant tissues, it is essential that the surface be 
covered with a very thin coating, and therefore high power 
is required. 

For small orchards and garden work, a hand pump is 
sufficient. Hand pumps vary in capacity upward from the 
knapsack sprayer, which contains usually three or four 
gallons and is carried, suspended by shoulder straps, upon 
the back of the operator, and which is useful for small 
gardens and vineyards. For gardens of considerable area, 
a hand pump mounted on a barrel and transported on a 
cart or sled should be used. For larger plantations, a good 
outfit is a double-cylinder horizontal-stroke pump which 
has a capacity of 100 to 150 gallons an hour and is effi- 
ciently worked by two strong men. Large plantations 
should be equipped with one of the many efficient types 
of pump for which gasoline engines furnish power. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are sprays better than powders for protecting plants? 
.2. What kind of spray should you use for a biting insect? Why? 

3. What kind of spray is used for sucking insects? Why? 

4. How do sprays protect plants from fungous diseases? What 
spray is generally used for this purpose? Why must weather condi- 
tions be taken into account in using this spray? 

5. What kinds of spray outfits are desirable for gardens or 
orchards of different sizes? 



CHAPTER XXXII 

ORCHARDING 

For the sake, not only of economy, but also of better 
quality and greater variety of food, every farm home 
should produce as large a proportion as possible of the 
fruit and the vegetables consumed by the family. 

The planter who has a large tract of land can usually 
afford to devote a considerable area to garden and fruit 
crops. He may use horse tools as much as possible in culti- 
vating them, and be satisfied with a smaller yield than 
more intensive work would produce. 

Planning for the orchard and the garden is a part of 
farm management important to the finances, the health, 
and the happiness of the occupants of the farm. The 
plans should be carefully made with the knowledge of how 
much space the various species will require as years go by, 
and with far-seeing vision in other respects also. It is all- 
important that every bit of soil be utilized, for neglected 
areas cause much trouble by growing weeds and by pro- 
viding conditions under which insects multiply. For those 
crops which are not permanent the plan should include a 
scheme of rotation; for growing any species in one place 
for any considerable time is certain to result in the increase 
of insects and fungi, to lessen success and satisfaction, 
and often to cause dismal failure. 

The owner of the land not only must consult his own 
preference as to crops, but must always consider whether 
his land is well adapted to the desired crops in soil, eleva- 
tion, and general topography. The quantity and the 

(377) 



378 AGRICULTURE 

quality of orchard and garden products are determined by- 
climate, soil, and care. 

Climate. The factors of climate which seem to have 
most influence are temperature, moisture, sunshine, and 
wind. Any one of these factors may limit the success of a 
species. Not only the degree of temperature that may be 
expected, but the time of the year when it occurs and the 
variability of the weather conditions, have no small in- 
fluence upon the success of fruit plantings. The tree 
which may not be injured by a January temperature of 
thirty degrees below zero might be seriously injured if 
that point were reached in November or March, and a 
frost maj?^ injure the blossoms of plants that would not be 
injured by very severe cold in midwinter. Sudden changes, 
rather than steady but extreme temperatures, injure fruit, 
especially if sudden drops below zero come in the fall or 
the spring, following mild weather. 

Soil and Moisture. The factors of moisture and soil 
are closely connected, and frequently must be considered 
as one, for the condition of the soil in its ability to receive 
and retain water is fully as important as the amount of 
rainfall. Orchard crops require abundant moisture, but 
they root deeply, and if there is sufficient moisture in the 
subsoil they often succeed when cereal or vegetable crops 
suffer. 

Subsoil. One of the most important factors in success- 
ful orcharding is the character of the subsoil. In investi- 
gating subsoil for orchard crops we must go deeper than 
for other crops, for we find extreme depths of great im- 
portance in the growth of tree fruits. 

The point of first importance is that the soil be well 
drained, that it be of such depth and texture that it will 
readily receive the rainfall or the irrigation water, and that 



ORCHARDING 379 

no free water be held about the roots. "Fruit trees can 
not be healthy if they have wet feet," is one of the oldest 
of orchard proverbs. 

Soils that require tile drainage are seldom good fruit 
soils, because these soils are usually underlain by a 
stratum that is not easily penetrated by water and is 
not favorable to deep penetration by roots. 

Orchard Sites. Some of the best places for fruit grow- 
ing do not have particularly rich surface soil, but possess 
a depth of soil and a moisture capacity that insure steady 
growth and abundant moisture. The hills of New England, 
the bluffs of the Missouri valley, and the sandy soil of the 
Arkansas valley are not so rich in some of the elements 
of plant food as are the black soils of the great valleys, 
but are better adapted to orchard crops because of the 
character of the subsoil, which absorbs moisture quickly 
and retains it well. The deep soils have frequently shown 
a high content of the mineral elements required by fruits. 
Trees root deeply, and the minerals are made more avail- 
able as roots penetrate the soil, and as air and moisture 
more readily come into contact with the soil particles. 

A soil analysis made by Professor C. C. Swanson 
shows that a very sandy soil in the Arkansas valley con- 
tains over two per cent of potassium. From a sample 
taken eight feet below the surface in the fruit-growing part 
of Doniphan county he learns that the soil contains, even 
at that depth, .024 per cent of nitrogen, .068 per cent of 
phosphorus, and 2.05 per cent of potassium. 

Such soils are the most desirable for fruit plantations, 
since the supply of plant food is not easily exhausted, nor 
likely to be in excess, and since they retain moisture so 
well that even in very dry years the trees secure moisture 
sufficient for fair crops of fruit. Even where irrigation is 



380 AGRICULTURE 

practicable, the subsoil is of great importance. The sub- 
soil should retain water in such quantity that it will be 
unnecessary to apply water oftener than once in three to 
five weeks during the growing season, and that the winter 
demand for moisture will be abundantly supplied. 

Almost any soil can be so prepared that trees and fruit 
plants may be successfully grown. A wet soil may be 
drained, a very dry soil may be irrigated, a poor soil may 
be enriched, and a shallow soil may be deepened by ditches 
and dynamite. Almost any expense might be justified in 
preparing a small area of soil for the trees and plants that 
are so large a part of a real home, but the commercial 
grower must compare his expenses and investments with 
those of his most favored competitor and decide whether 
or not he can go to such expense and hope for a profit. 

Selecting Fruits for the Orchard. In considering the 
value of any fruit, whether for market, exhibition, or 
home consumption, we estimate it according to the relative 
importance of its different characters. The points given 
most consideration should be those which most certainly 
and uniformly affect the value of the fruit, and which indi- 
cate its quality and the probability of its best serving the 
pui*pose for which it was gi'own. It is probable that for 
different fruits, and perhaps for different localities, the 
weight given to a single character should vary somewhat. 

The points of greatest importance in the selection of 
fruit in general are size, color, form, quality, and freedom 
from blemish. The points are not of equal value, and the 
weight given each varies somewhat with the different 
uses to which fruit is put. 

The Meaning and Origin of Varieties. The general 
points of desirability having been fixed, the next question 
is, how to secure the maximum degree of excellence in each 



ORCHARDING 381 

of these characters. We see in the market or at the fair, 
fruits and vegetables that differ in many respects. We 
note that the labels designate them by name. Among 
the apples we note Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Ben Davis, 
Winesap, Maiden-blush, and many other varieties. What 
is a variety? The name of a plant consists of the name 
of the large group, or genus, and that of the smaller di- 
vision of the group, or species. The genus Prunus, for 
example, includes the peach, the cherry, and several spe- 
cies of plums. The plum that has been introduced from 
Europe is Prunus domestica, the species name signifying 
"tame." The wild plum of the wood is Prunus ameri- 
cana, it being a native of America. There are many kinds 
of plums from Europe, varying in size, color, and form; 
and desirable ones have been increased and have been given 
names by which they are generally known; as, Yellow Egg 
and Blue Damson, which are now the names of what we 
designate as varieties. In all kinds of cultivated plants we 
have varieties. In cabbages we have Drumhead, Flatl'kead, 
and Allhead; in strawberries. Senator Dunlap and Aroma; 
in grapes. Concord and Moore's Early; in onions, Prize- 
taker and Globe Dan vers. The fruits or vegetables of one 
variety are products of plants which trace their ancestry 
to some particularly desirable parent plant. The original 
Jonathan apple tree, for example, was grown in Ulster 
county. New York, on the farm of Philip Rich, from seed 
of the old variety, Esopus Spitzenberg. It was so desir- 
able that scions or twigs were taken from it and grafted 
upon trees which had less desirable fruit. As growers 
became acquainted with it, more trees were grafted, and 
from these others, so that all the thousands of Jonathan 
trees trace to the original tree. It was named in 1829 by 
Judge J. Buel, of Albany, in honor of his friend Jonathan 



382 



AGRICULTURE 



Hasbrouck, who had called his attention to the fruit. 
The origin of many valuable varieties is unknown. Vari- 
eties of vegetables and other plants 
grown from seed are kept pure by 
careful selection of the individuals 
which are to produce seed. 

The Adaptability of Varieties. 
In striving to produce the best 
fruits and vegetables the matter of 
variety is of great importance. 
Varieties differ in hardiness, in 
productiveness, and in adaptability 
to varying climatic and soil condi- 
tions. Some varieties attain a high 
degree of success in many differing 
locations; others require peculiar 
environment for their successful de- 
velopment. The factors of environ- 
ment which have the greatest 
influence on plant life are climate, 
soil, and neighbors, or the other 
plants and animals which are found 
in the locality. Particularly im- 
portant in the list of neighbors are 
some members of the groups of 
plants known as fungi, and the in- 
sect forms of animal life. The 
gi'ower must study each factor of 
environment in order to attain 
success in the production of fruit 
and vegetables. 

Securing Trees of a Variety. In 
the early days of fruit growing 
it was the usual custom to plant the seeds of the 




Graftms- 



a, The scion; b, the stock; 
c, the graft. 



fruit 



ORCHARDING 



383 



desired, in a garden rov/, and then to transplant tne young 
trees to the orchard; then, if the fruit proved inferior, to 
graft some more desirable kinds upon the branches. Since 
orcharding has become a business, men want to know just 
what fruit will be borne. They dig the seedling root, or 
stock, at the end of its first season's growth, store it in a 
cellar, and about midwinter graft upon it a scion of the de- 
sired variety and store it in sand in a cool cellar until 
spring. The graft, as the new union is called, is then set 
in the nursery row, where it is given every advantage of 
good soil and thorough cultivation until it is ready for 
the orchard, either as a one-year-old or as a two-year-old 
tree. 

Budding to Secure Varieties. In growing peach, cherry, 
and plum trees, it is found that a better degi'ee of success 







Budding: a, TheT-cut; 6, the bud stick, and the bud removed; c, the bud in place and tied; rf, the 
same ten days later, but with the tie removed. 

can be secured by the process called budding. The seed- 
ling stock is grown in a nursery row, but, instead of digging 
it and grafting a scion upon it in the grafting cellar, the 



384 AGRICULTURE 

nurseryman, in July or August, when the young stem is 
strong and vigorous and the bark separates readily from 
the wood tissue, cuts a single leaf bud from the desired 
variety and places its freshly cut surface in contact with 
the wood tissue of the seedling stock. A transverse cut 
is first made, next a cut down the stem; the bark is then 
separated with the knife blade, and the bud is gently 
pushed into the opening and tied with a cord, a strip of 
cloth, or a bit of rafRa. In a week or ten days the buds 
are examined. If good work has been done, a large pro- 
portion of the buds will have "taken," as the nurseryman 
says, and the tie on each is cut, always on the side of the 
stem opposite the bud. The following spring the stem is 
cut off just above the bud, and the new tree is ready for 
the orchard in one year or in two, according to the size 
desired by the orchardist. 

The Choice of Varieties for Kansas. The choice of 
varieties will be determined by the purpose for which the 
plantation is intended. If the planting is for home use 
primarily, it is a matter of personal preference; while if it 
is for market, the varieties should be those which rank 
high in the markets to be supplied. There are so many 
desirable varieties that it is largely a matter of choosing 
those that succeed best in the locality and are favored by 
the consumer. A list of varieties for any part of America 
would vary from the list for any other part. Some of the 
more important varieties grown in Kansas are given, 
somewhat in order of ripening, not in order of commercial 
importance. 

Apples. Early Harvest, Cooper White, Maiden-blush, 
and Primate are all yellow or greenish yellow, with a slight 
blush on some specimens. The Wealthy is striped or 
nearly red ; it is desirable in every way. Jonathan, a red. 




GOOD VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR KANSAS 

JONATHAN, GRIMES GOLDEN, BEN DAVIS, WINESAP, MAIDEN-BLUSH 



ORCHARDING 385 

and Grimes Golden, a yellow, are excelled by very few, 
and are known wherever apples are sold. The Delicious is 
a newer variety of considerable promise. Stayman and 
Black Twig are seedlings of Winesap, larger than the 
parent and of good quality and market favorites. Wine- 
sap, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin are old standard 
varieties that are well known in every apple market. 

Cherries. The sour cherry is the only species grown 
extensively in Kansas and the Middle West generally. 
The best known varieties are Early Richmond, Mont- 
morency, and English Morello. 

Plums. Each species of plum has given us many vari- 
eties. In Kansas orchards we find, of the European species, 
the varieties Damson, Lombard, Greengage ; of the Japanese 
species. Abundance and Burbank ; of the various American 
species, Wild Goose, Weaver, Milton, and Forest Garden. 

Peaches. Peaches vary in color of flesh and in ad- 
herence of the flesh to the stone. Free-stone varieties are 
most in favor. Some yellow-fleshed varieties are Triumph, 
Crawford, and Elberta. Some white-fleshed are Champion, 
Carmen, Belle of Georgia and Mamie Ross. 

Age of Trees for Planting. Nurserymen offer either one- 
year-old or two-year-old trees for sale. The advantages 
of a one-j'ear-old tree are: a better proportion of stem and 
root tissue; a lower cost of hauling and transportation; 
the fact that the tree may be more readily "headed," or 
formed to the ideal of the grower; the fact that less prun- 
ing is needed and less work is required in setting; the fact 
that only vigorous trees attain the desired measurements. 

Many growers still prefer the two-year-old tree because 
it is larger, stronger, and less liable to be twisted out of 
shape by strong winds; because it requires less care in 
heading, as main branches have usually been fostered by 



386 



AGRICULTURE 



the nurseryman; and because it is the common size sold by 
most nurseries and consequently can be obtained with 
less trouble. 

A careful man can grow good trees from either size, 

and it is more important 
that the young tree be vig- 
orous, free from disease 
and insect pests, and true 
to its variety name, than 
that it be of any specified 
size or age. 

The Preparation of the 
Ground for Planting. 
In planning the use of 
the soil for at least one 
year before the date of 
planting, the grower 
should have the welfare 
of the tree in mind. The 
soil should be well and 
deeply plowed, the deeper 
the better, and thoroughly 
worked. The crops 
planted should be deep- 
rooted ones, and such as 
Y mature sufficiently early 
to allow early fall plow- 

A one-year-old apple tree is easily prepared for ing. lu loCalltleS where 
setting and may be headed as the orchardist desires. " _ 

A two-year-old tree must be severely cut back to ■^Vjg SOil Is liable tO iUIUrV 
proportion the top to the shortened root system. " "^ •' 

by washing or blowing, 
the fall plowing should be done sufficiently early so 
that a cover crop of oats or cowpeas may be grown to 
protect the soil, or strips may be plowed for the tree rows, 
leaving corn stalks or stubble on the spaces between the 




ORCHARDING 387 

tree rows. In the Middle West, where there is sometimes 
a lack of moisture in late fall and winter, it is usually 
better to plant trees in the early spring than in the fall. 

Ordering and Planting Trees. Trees should be ordered 
early and the buyer should be certain that he is dealing 
directly with his nursery or with its authorized agent and 
is not buying from some one who is ''peddling trees." 
When the trees are received they should be unpacked at 
once, and the roots at once protected from sun and air. 
If for any reason the trees can not be set at once they 
should be "heeled in," or temporarily set in good, moist 
soil, care being taken that all the roots are in contact 
with the soil, with no air space that will allow drying out. 
Puddling the roots— dipping them in thin mud— is a good 
practice, but care must be taken that the soil used is 
sandy or loamy and not a sticky clay. 

For planting the trees, holes should be dug large enough 
to allow the roots to be well spread, and the tree should be 
set a little deeper than it stood in the nursery. Trees may 
be well and quickly planted by opening a furrow with a 
lister or a double plow. The furrows should not be opened 
much in advance of the planter, if the air is dry, and should 
be filled immediately after the tree is set. Two-year-old 
trees should be pruned back considerably, but enough 
good buds should be left to insure thrifty tops. One-year- 
old trees are usually headed back to eighteen or twenty- 
four inches. 

Caring for Young Trees. After the tree is set we should 
remember that it is an investment that has a high profit- 
producing power. If we expect to realize a profit from the 
investment we must give it careful and continual atten- 
tion. We must have a strong, well-made plant, and the 
little tree must be given every opportunity it can use. It 



388 



AGRICULTURE 




must be given the exclusive use of all the soil it can oc- 
cupy. That soil must contain all the materials it can 
utilize, and we must allow it consider- 
able surplus energy in its early years. 

It would be a serious mistake to try 
during the first few years to restrict the 
growth of the tree to the few branches 
that will form the structure which is to 
produce the fruit. Let it grow as fast as 
it can, but keep in mind the form that it 
is to attain as it gets older. The tree 
must grow larger, and the material for 
this growth is manufactured by leaves; 
therefore we must have a large number 
of leaves if much wood is to be formed. 
But the grower must have in mind the 
form of tree best suited to produce fruit, 
and so prune the tree as to cause it 
gradually to grow to this form. 

Pruning. Whatever the object 
sought, pruning should be carefully and 
thoughtfully done. Tools should be 
clean and sharp, and the work should be 
done in a workmanlike manner. The 
workman should clearly understand the 
object in view and the reason for per- 
forming each operation. When it is a 
question of the removal of one of several 
branches, he should have a reason for the 
decision and not refer his choice to 
chance. In addition to pruning for 
growth and formation and for maturity and productive- 
ness, protective pruning is sometimes required to remove 




For young trees a strong 
knife is the best pruning 
tool. 



ORCHARDING 



389 



diseased tissues and prevent the spread of disease. In 
such cases the tools should be thoroughly clcdned and 

sterilized, and the 
wound should be 
made in sound 
wood and then 
carefully painted. 
A paint composed 
of pure white lead 
and linseed oil is 
satisfactory. 

When branches 
are cut off the 
wound should be 
close to the limb 
from which it orig- 
inates, and made 
smooth and even. 
If the limb is heavy 
and there is danger 
of splitting into the 
permanent tissues, 
a cut on each side 
should be made to 
prevent the tearing 
of the bark and 
young wood. 
There are on the 
market many kinds of priming tools, ' 
concerning which men differ in their 
opinions. A good workman can do 
good work with most of them. Two 
very popular saws are the steel-frame 
saw with blades with different sizes of teeth, and the 




A good saw for larger branches. 

Pruning Tools. 



A curved-blade saw, useful 
for light work. 



390 



AGRICULTURE 



curved-blade saw, which for light work is favored by 
many workmen. Heavy clippers are satisfactory for 
many special purposes. For pruning vines and bushes 
a pair of grape pruning shears is indispensable. 

Pruning to Secure Fruit. To secure fruit we need 
flowers, and we must study the formation of flower buds 

if we would 
secure flowers. 
Plants vary 
much in what 
the grower calls 
the fruit habit. 
The matter of 
securing fruit 
buds is the 
achievement 
the fruit grower 
has always in 
mind. The ap- 
ple, the pear, 
the cherry, and 
most varieties 
of plums bear 
their fruit on 

An apple spur in July, 1914: a, fruit buds lor the crop of 1915; b, sPUrS Or VCrV 

tlie crop of 1914; c, scar where the 1913 stem was produced; d, the r' > J' 

unproductive wood of 1912; e, scar of the apple borne in 1911; /, lo- short lateral 
cation of the fruit borne in 1910. 

branches. To 
obtain these spurs is to obtain the means to the end. 
These spurs are often crooked and irregular, particularly 
upon old trees, and ignorant people sometimes clip them 
off in an effort to make a clean, handsome tree. These 
spurs usually bear fruit in alternate years; in the year in 
which the fruit is borne, a leaf bud is produced in addi- 
tion. The year following, the leaf bud develops a cluster 




ORCHARDING 391 

of leaves and a fruit bud for the next year's fruit. The 
spur should be cherished as the vital part of the tree. 
The spur is often injured by careless fruit pickers. The 
spurs of the cherry are particularly liable to injury through 
the tearing of the bark when the stem of the fruit is re- 
moved. The spur is in this way often killed. The 
cherry and the plum are usually less vigorous in growth 
than the pear and the apple, but are much more regular 
in their fruit habits. 

Pruning the Peach. On the peach tree flower buds are 
so far developed in the fall that we can easily recognize 
them by their full, rounded appearance. We look for them 
only on the new wood of the season's growth. These buds 
are more easily injured than are less well developed buds. 
In localities having a variable climate there are fewer 
crops of peaches than of fruits the buds of which are not 
so well developed in the fall. The peach develops such a 
large number of buds that it can not furnish food for them 
all. We must cut back the branches and thin the fruit if 
we would secure the size, the color, and the quality that 
we desire. Whenever the fruit buds are killed by winter 
cold or spring frost the tree should be pruned back 
severely, in order that the new growth upon which the 
buds will form may be kept low enough to make thinning 
and picking easier. 

Summer Pruning. We do not want a tree to bear until 
it has sufficient size and strength to produce a profitable 
crop, but we do want it to bear as soon and as heavily as 
it can without lessening its vitality and shortening its life. 
A tree that is making a very vigorous and heavy growth 
of new wood is not likely to form fruit spurs. If in the 
spring the new growth is very strong and the new shoots 
make a very strong growth, the lateral buds along the 



392 



AGRICULTURE 



older stem do not develop at all or form but a leaf or Wo 
that soon fall. To develop these lateral buds, in early- 
summer we cut back and thin out the new growth. This 




Trees must be so pruned as to admit light to the center, in order that the fruit spurs may be well 
developed and produce strong, healthy flowers. 

makes it possible for the lateral buds to absorb more 
food from the stem and gives the lateral bud more light, 
enabling the leaves from the lateral bud to prepare more 
food and inducing spur growth. 

The richer the soil and the more favorable the condi- 
tions for the growth of new wood, the greater the neces- 
sity for systematic summer pruning. Very dry weather in 
spring and early summer sometimes gives the conditions 
required for the formation of spurs and fruit buds. In 
localities where all or most of the soil moisture is secured by 
irrigation the conditions favorable to bud formation may 
be more certainly secured and the trees come into bearing 



ORCHARDING 



393 



at an earlier age than in places where the rainfall is likely 
to be heavy in the spring and summer months. 

While conditions vary somewhat, the general require- 
ments in growing fruit trees are : 

First, to secure a strong tree with a form that will carry 
a heavy weight; to admit sufficient light to favor bud 




A well-shaped Winesap tree that at seventeeu years of aye produced twenty bushels of apples. 

development ; and to give color to fruit by thorough culti- 
vation and winter pruning. 

Second, after the tree has sufficient size to carry a crop, 
to induce the formation of fruit buds by cutting back and 
thinning out the new growth, giving more light and food 
for spur formation. If summer pruning should be followed 
by heavy rains, a new growth might be induced which 
would defeat the purpose of the pruning. This possibility 
should be anticipated by ceasing to cultivate and sowing a 



394 AGRICULTURE 

cover crop, which will use part of the water and available 
plant food that the tree might otherwise get. 

Cropping and Cultivating the Young Orchard. The 

young tree in its early growth should have every oppor- 
tunity to make a rapid growth, but it would be poor farm- 
ing to devote a square rod to the tree when three square 
yards are sufficient for its growth for a year or two. There- 
fore other crops may be grown between the trees during 
the first few years. Small grains and sown fodder crops 
should be avoided. It is difficult to harvest small grain 
among trees, and it is much better to use crops that re- 
quire cultivation. 

In exposed locations corn is an excellent crop if the 
grower, remembering that the corn plant is greedy, will 
therefore give the tree sufficient area. Strawberries are 
often grown between the rows without injury to the trees. 
The black raspberry is the best of the bush fruits for an 
orchard crop. It is not so rank in growth, and may be 
more easily killed by plowing than the other brambles. 
Melons, squashes, and pumpkins are good crops for 
orchards. Potatoes, tomatoes, and in fact any vegetable 
crop, may be grown if the welfare of the tree is always 
given first consideration. 

In plowing and cultivating care must be taken to keep 
the surface level. Ridging the tree row is a common 
orchard error; for, as the trees increase in size, it becomes 
more and more difficult to cultivate near the tree, the 
ridge becomes hard, and water is drained away, tending to 
form a waterway and often causing ditches, waste of soil, 
and inconvenience. At the first indication of ditch for- 
mation, some brush, straw, or other material should be 
used to spread the water and stop the washing. 

As the trees increase in size and the area available for 
intercropping grows less, the character of the soil and the 



396 AGRICULTURE 

general condition of the trees must be considered in plan- 
ning for the welfare of the orchard. On hilly land, where 
washing is a problem, a cover crop is a necessity. A cover 
crop is one grown in the orchard, left over winter, and 
plowed under in the spring. It is usually a quick-growing 
crop, planted late in the summer. On some soils, par- 
ticularly in localities of abundant rainfall, crimson clover 
gives good results. An occasional cultivation with disk 
or shovel tools may be given, and the clover will form 
a mulch that will add to the soil fertility. Careful growers 
who are conscientious in returning the fertility to the 
orchard in the form of manure may find profit in using the 
clover as a hay, but, after the orchard is in bearing, there 
are few exceptions to the rule that the trees need all the 
food and moisture that can be made available. A clover 
cover in some regions is followed by a stand of blue grass, 
which, forming a thick, close sod, is unfavorable to the 
orchard and should be prevented. 

On sandy soils of the river valleys a combination of 
early cultivation and late cover crop is advisable. In some 
cases very good orchard conditions are maintained by 
occasional disking and frequent mowing. 

In regions where the rainfall is liable to be deficient 
the best treatment comprises clean cultivation and an 
occasional application of barnyard manure to maintain 
the texture and fertility of the soil. 

Fertilizers. The principles of plant nutrition apply to 
fruit growing. Before applying fertilizers to any crop in 
any locality, one should ascertain by observation and 
experiment what substances will give best results. Fruits 
need soils strong in potash and phosphorus. Occasion- 
ally the supply of nitrogen is too low for the best results. 
Clover or cowpeas as a cover crop will usually supply 
sufficient nitrogen. In the Middle West, where manure 



ORCHARDING 



397 



may be obtained from feed lots and stock yards, the needed 
element may be supplied in this way as cheaply as with 
the mineral substances, while at the same time humus is 
added to the soil. 

General Care. In addition to proper preparation of the 
soil and cultivation to conserve moisture, to keep down 




A spring-iuutu barrow is a ^luud inipltii.enl lV,r lu^iiilaiiniig iLe surlact- iiuikii, ;iiiiJ, \\illi iLl- exteu- 
sion wings, covers a large area in a short time. 

weeds and to maintain soil fertility, the fruit grower must 
work to prevent loss from injurious insects and plant dis- 
eases. As soon as the presence of an insect is noted, meas- 
ures should be taken for its control. Insects increase in 
numbers so rapidly that a single season's neglect may 
ruin a plantation. 

The two methods of preventing injury are the destruc- 
tion of infected plants, or such parts of plants as may be 
necessary, and spraying. If a plant is badly infected with 
an insect or disease, the grower must ascertain at once if 
the trouble can be controlled without destroying the plant. 
If it can, he must do the necessary work at once. A few 
hours spent in removing the infected bushes in a black- 



398 



AGRICULTURE 



berry patch saved an area that produced profitable crops 
for several years. The orchardist who does not spray his 
trees when a pest is first noticed may in a single season 
lose a hundred times the cost of the spray. 

The Grape. There are many species of the grape genus, 
Vitis, varying from the large one of Europe to the small 



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One man on the ground and one in the tower, with two hundred pounds pressure at the pump, make 
an effective combination for fighting the codUng moth. 

wild grape found in all parts of the West. Many varieties 
have been developed from these species. 

The American varieties withstand more cold and are 
more resistant to diseases and insects than are those of 
Europe. In every part of the United States except the 
northernmost some varieties may be grown. From some 
varieties that bear small bunches and berries of small 
size a very fine quality of juice and jelly is obtainable. 

Grapes are propagated from cuttings, and grow so 



ORCHARDING 399 

readily that good vines may be secured cheaply. The 
usual method is to make the cuttings in the fall and store 
them in a cool cellar or bury them until spring, when they 
are set in a nursery row and kept well-cultivated and free 
from weeds. They may be set in the vineyard one or two 
years later. When set in the vineyard they should be 
pruned back to one or two buds, and one year later again 
cut back, in order that they may be vigorous. After the 
second season they usually produce abundantly. 

On rich soil grapes should be set farther apart than on 
thin or poor soil, and should be allowed to set more fruit. 
On soils of fair quality, eight feet apart each way is a good 
distance. 

The American grapes grow best on a trellis. Alm.ost 
any form of trellis is satisfactory if the vine is pruned care- 
fully. In cool or damp climates the trellises are made 
high, to allow a good circulation of air and to ripen the 
fruit a little earlier. In dry, hot regions the trellis may 
well be lower, to protect the fruit from sun and wind. The 
pruning may be done at any time after the leaves fall 
and before the buds begin to swell in the spring. The 
grape bears its fruit on new shoots which develop from the 
preceding year's growth. We prune the vines rather se- 
verely, leaving comparatively few of the buds, as we know 
that the quality and the size of the fruit in a fair crop will 
give it more value than would be possessed by a larger 
weight of inferior fruit. 

The varieties of grape best known in Kansas are Con- 
cord, Moore's Early, Worden, Catawba, Diamond, and 
Elvira. Some hybrids, secured from the American and 
European species, are superior to the American in flavor 
and quality, but are injured by a degree of cold which does 
not injure the American vines. Brighton, Agawam, and 
Goethe may be grown if the grower protects them through 



400 



AGRICULTURE 



the winter by laying down the canes and covering them 
with earth. For hot, dry locahties some varieties origi- 
nated by R. V. Munson, of Texas, by crossing the post- 
oak grapes with other varieties, are best. Among them 
are Fern Munson, Headlight and Xylenta. 

Small Fruits. Small fruits deserve all their popularity; 
for they are generally successful, come into bearing soon 
after planting, and are not difficult to grow. 

The Strawberry. The strawberry is the first fruit of 
our season, gen- 
erally ripening 
in Kansas in 
the last part 
of May and the 
first part of 
June. It usually 
gives large re- 
turns for cul- 
tivation and 
care. Straw- 
berries are prop- 
a g a t e d from 
stolons, or run- 
ners, a single 
plant in the course of a season producing a number of 
new plants. 

Good garden soil is best for strawberries. Corn land 
that has been heavily manured and put into condition to 
grow a heavy crop of corn will grow good berries. Freshly 
broken sod or freshly manured soil should be avoided, as 
the white grub, the larva of the insect called the May 
beetle or the June bug, infests such soil and seems par- 
ticularly fond of the roots of the strawberry plant. 

Commercial growers of the Middle West usually set 




A single strawberry plant set in the spring will produce, by means of 
stolons, a large number of plants during the following season. 



ORCHARDING 401 

the plants in the spring in rows four or five feet apart, 
and twelve to eighteen inches apart in the row. Care 
must be taken not to set a plant so deeply in the 
ground that the crown or the buds may be covered by 
heavy rains. The blossom buds which appear on the new 
plant should be removed as soon as they appear, or the 
plant may be exhausted in producing a few berries. The 
plant will produce stolons, and they should be so placed 
about the plant that each will have sufficient space for 
development. Varieties differ in plant-making power, 
some producing but few plants, while others produce 
more new plants than the ground can support. 

Rows made up of the latter varieties usually become 
thickly set by fall. This is called the matted-row system. 

Much better fruit is secured by the hill system, in which 
no runners are allowed to form, the plant developing all 
its strength in fruit buds. 

The single-hedge row, in which each plant is allowed to 
produce two runners, and the double-hedge row, in which 
each plant produces four new plants, are systems that are 
increasing in favor, for the berries are larger and better 
developed than where gi'own in a matted row. In most 
seasons thorough cultivation will conserve sufficient 
moisture for a strawberry crop, but in dry soils and par- 
ticularly trying seasons irrigation should be practiced if 
possible. 

After the fruit is picked the plants should be severely 
thinned and the ground put into good condition, A mulch 
of cleanly threshed straw or coarse hay should be applied 
after freezing has checked the growth, and should remain 
until spring. Delay in removing the mulch may cause 
the plants to iDleach, which should be avoided. 

Some varieties of the strawberry have imperfect blos- 
soms, which do not produce pollen, and companion varie- 

26 



402 AGRICULTURE 

ties which are perfect-flowered must be planted near them. 
The imperfect varieties have usually produced better or 
more even crops than the perfect-flowered. Warfield, 
Haverland, Bubach, and Sample are popular varieties 
having imperfect flowers. Senator Dunlap, Aroma, Bran- 
dywine, Chesapeake, Splendid, and Bederwood are perfect- 
flowered and generally profitable. 

Bush Fruits. Blackberries, raspberries, and gooseber- 
ries should find a place in most gardens. These fruits will 
do well on soils varying from a sandy loam to clay, but, 
whatever the soil, it must be in good condition as to texture 
and plant food. 

The red raspberry does not withstand dry weather and 
low temperature so well as do the others. Thorough culti- 
vation and care are important. Early spring setting is 
best. A light crop may be expected one year after setting 
and a full crop the second year. 

The black raspberry propagates by means of the tips of 
the canes, which touch the soil and take root. The goose- 
berry propagates from layers, the others from suckers. 
In all except the gooseberry the berries are borne on canes 
of the preceding year. The fruit of the gooseberry is borne 
on older wood 

Pruning the gooseberry consists in removing the wood 
which is so old as to be useless. Pruning the others con- 
sists in removing the canes which have fruited. This may 
usually be done more easily after the ground is frozen. 
The new canes are also clipped back just before the berries 
are picked. This facilitates picking and induces a growth 
of laterals. Thorough cultivation will decrease suckering 
and will keep the stand thin. 

In Kansas the most extensively grown varieties of red 
raspberry are Miller's Red, Cuthbert, and London; of 
black raspberry, Kansas and Cumberland ; of blackberry. 



ORCHARDING 403 

Early Harvest, Snyder, Mercereau, Erie, and Ward; and 
of gooseberry. Downing. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name three factors that determine the success of orchards. 

2. What is the best type of subsoil for an orchard? 

3. What is a variety? How are varieties secured? What fac- 
tors are to be considered in selecting varieties? 

4 What are the best varieties for Kansas: (a) of apples; (6) of 
enerries; (c) of plums; and (d) of peaches? 

5. Describe budding. When should it be performed? 

6. State the advantages of planting one-year-old trees; two- 
year-old trees. 

7. Name some necessary pruning tools. How should the peach 
tree be pruned? What are the advantages of summer pruning? 

8. When may cropping be an advisable practice in the orchard? 

9. What varieties of grapes are adapted to Kansas conditions? 

10. Describe the culture of the strawberry. 

11. How are bush fruits pruned? 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 

A vegetable garden may be looked upon as a pleasure 
and as a necessity. Small areas of land yield great vari- 
eties of desirable vegetables, and so make the diet not only 
more economical, but more pleasing, more healthful, and 
less monotonous. A better quality of vegetables can be 
secured from the home garden than one can buy under 




Vegetables that are washed clean and attractively prepared have a better chance in the market than 
has the product of the careless grower. 

ordinary conditions. The garden furnishes interest and 
occupation for every member of the family and yields 
satisfaction and profit in direct proportion to the thought 
and care expended on it. 

The Site for the Garden. If possible, the garden should 
be near the house, so as to be easily accessible. It should 

(404) 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 405 

be protected from chickens and other stock, and, where 
possible, should be near enough to the water supply so 
that it may be irrigated when necessary. The soil should 
be the best available, either naturally or through im- 
provement. There should be slope enough to drain the 
garden well, but not enough to make it wash. Ordinarily, 
it is desirable that the garden be relatively long and nar- 
row, so that vegetables may be planted in long rows and 
cultivated with tools rather than by hand. 

The Care of the Garden. More gardens fail because of 
improper preparation of the soil than for any other cause. 
Often no garden preparations are made until the birds and 
the flowers suggest that spring has com.e, and then a small 
patch is hastily spaded or plowed, and planted. Such 
practice usually results in failure. The best preparation 
for a garden is to plow in the fall and to use large quantities 
of well-rotted manure. The manure should be applied in 
considerable quantities in the fall and plowed under. If 
the garden is new and the soil poor it will pay to do a 
great deal of work to get the manure and the soil 
well mixed. 

Fall plowing aearates the soil and helps to release plant 
food, helps the soil to retain moisture, destroys insects by 
exposing them to frost, and usually warms earlier in the 
spring than unplowed land. If there is considerable slope, 
fall plowing should be done across the slope to prevent 
washing. Where the soil blows, the garden may be covered 
with coarse manure after the fall plowing and the blowing 
prevented. In the spring all the coarse manure should be 
removed. Only fine manure should be applied to a garden 
and left, for coarse manure interferes with the plants and 
with working the garden. For the best results, both plow- 
ing and liberal manuring should be practiced year after 
year. Quality and kind of manure should vary somewhat 



406 AGRICULTURE 

with the plants which are to be grown in different parts of 
the garden. Old, leached manure will not force the growth 
of stems so rapidly as will recently decomposed manure. 
This should be kept in mind in preparing the soil and 
planning the garden. 

Planning the Garden. The garden should be planned 
to enable one to care for it with the least loss of time and 
labor. Long, narrow gardens permit all the vegetables- 
to be planted in rows and cultivated with wheel tools. 
Small beds are wasteful of land and require a great deal of 
extra labor. The soil should be occupied all the time. 
This means that we should plan to have a second crop 
follow the first early-maturing crop, and that the early- 
maturing crops should be planted with this in view. The 
gardener should also plan to place the crops according to 
the way the manuring has been done. As a rule, crops 
which are grown for leaves or stems are planted on re- 
cently manured soil. Lettuce, spinach, cabbage, cauli- 
flower, and chard are examples of such crops. With these 
we may class those plants, such as corn, squash, and mel- 
ons, which produce a large amount of stalk or stem be- 
fore producing the seed. Plants grown for the fruit or the 
seed parts, and those which store reserve supplies of food 
in roots and tubers, succeed better on soil which has not 
been so recently or richly manured. Examples of these 
crops are tomatoes, egg plants, peas and beans, beets, 
carrots, parsnips, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. Careful 
planning of the garden means careful preparation, careful 
arrangement of the plants in the garden, and planting for 
a succession of crops on the same land during the year and 
during succeeding years. 

Selecting Garden Crops. For the home garden, the 
preferences of the family will determine what shall be 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 



407 



f 




^^^>K r^<W<^SiM^B|^^^^^| 




/ '^fl^H 



Good lettuce must be quickly grown, so that the inner 
leaves may be closely folded, white, and crisp. 



grown. Market gardeners must be ruled by the market 
demands. The market gardener must also select varieties 
which will stand handling and transportation well. 

In planning the home 
garden the amount of 
space given to any one 
crop will depend upon 
the quantity needed 
and upon whether or 
not an excess may be 
preserved for winter 
use. Lettuce and rad- 
ishes must be used at 
once, while an excess 
of beets and beans 
may be canned or pickled for future use. 

Garden crops which require careful attention at a defi- 
nite time should not be grown if the work of a large farm 
is likely to interfere with proper care of them. Under such 
conditions one should select staple garden crops and 
standard hardy varieties, rather than specialties or fancy 
crops. Where plenty of time can be given, however, one 
may well grow special crops which require special atten- 
tion, and be repaid both in pleasure and in profit. 

The dates for planting the different garden crops vary 
somewhat, but the relative time for planting the different 
species is usually fairly constant. The exact date of plant- 
ing is a matter of judgment or guesswork, but, while the 
early planting may sometimes fail, the demand for early 
products is such that it is worth while to take some chances 
with the weather. 

Lettuce, radishes, turnips, beets, onions, spinach, and 
smooth-seeded peas are hardy, and may be sown as soon 
as the soil may be worked. 



408 AGRICULTURE 

Beans and wrinkled peas and corn may be planted as 
soon as the soil begins to warm well, and carrots, parsnips, 
and salsify for winter use may be planted at this time if 
they have not been planted with the early vegetables. 

Hotbeds. The purpose of the hotbed is either to start 
or to grow vegetables earlier in the spring than they could 
otherwise be grown. Sometimes lettuce and other crops 
are allowed to grow in the hotbed until they are large 
enough to use. Usually, however, plants are started in 
the hotbed and then transplanted. 

The hotbed should be placed on the south side of a 
building or other good windbreak, and care should be taken 
to have good drainage. The north side should be five or six 
inches higher than the south side, so that the glass covering 
may incline toward the sun. The sides may well be from 
twelve to fifteen inches above the soil on the north side, 
and from seven to nine inches on the front. A convenient 
size of sash is three by six feet. The bed should then be 
six feet wide north and south, and may be as many times 
three feet long as desired. Placing the sash thus north 
and south gives more sunlight. For starting sweet pota- 
toes many prefer to cover the bed with muslin. The sash 
should fit tight, and in very cold weather should be covered 
with straw matting or wooden shutters. 

Building Hotbeds. A hotbed frame is sometimes set 
upon a pile of fermenting manure, in which case the 
pile should extend for about a foot around the edges of the 
frame, to hold the heat. It is best, however, to have a pit 
about two feet deep. If the bed is to be permanent, the 
pit may be a foot wider than the frame and be walled with 
stone or brick. Upon the bottom of the pit place a layer, 
two or three inches deep, of straw, leaves, or any other 
coarse material. Then place a layer of manure eighteen 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 409 

to twenty-four inches deep, a thin layer of leaf mold or 
other material above this, and lastly a layer of four to six 
inches of good, rich loam, in which the plants are to be 
grown. 

Preparing Manure for Hotbeds. The heat for hotbeds 
is commonly supplied by the fermentation of horse manure. 
Fresh manure from highly fed horses is the best. It 
should be mixed with a little litter or straw, as the 
manure will not heat well if too dense. It should be 
piled in a long, narrow, square-topped pile, should not be 
wet, and should be allowed to ferment. If the weather is 
cold and fermentation does not begin, the addition of a 
little hen manure to one part of the pile, or wetting the 
manure with hot water, v/ill start the heating. In order 
to secure uniform fermentation, the pile should be turned 
occrsionally and all lumps broken up. When the pile is 
steaming throughout, it is ready for the hotbed. The 
process of heating usually requires from four to ten days. 

The hotbed may be made as early in the year as desired, 
but for common use, growing early tomatoes, lettuce, 
radishes, and the like, early in March is generally the best 
time. Care must be taken not to water the bed too much, 
as this will cool the manure and stop fermentation. The 
bed should be ventilated frequently during the warmest 
part of the day. 

Cold Frames. A cold frame has no heat other than that 
derived from the sun. It consists of a frame of the desired 
size, with glass cover, so arranged that the bed may be 
ventilated. Cold frames are placed in a sheltered spot, 
near buildings, or in the open field, as desired, and the 
plants may be transplanted from them when settled 
weather arrives, or the frame may be taken up and the 
plants left standing where they started. Cold frames are 
used to harden off plants; that is, gradually to accustom 



410 



AGRICULTURE 



hotbed plants to the colder outer atmosphere, or to protect 
plants which can not endure severe cold but need no 
bottom heat. 

Transplanting. Plants may be transplanted as soon as 
it is warm enough and one feels reasonably sure that the 
weather is settled. Strong, stocky plants are better for 
transplanting than large, spindling plants. The plants 
should be put into their permanent places just as soon as 
possible after they are removed from the hotbed or from 
the box. Just as many of the small roots should be pre- 




Good tomatoes must be of good size,, of good color, smooth, and uniform in outline, and must 
have a large proportion of flesh and a small proportion of seed cells. 

served as possible. The soil in which the plants are to be 
placed should be warm, moist, and in good tilth. The 
roots of the plants should be spread as much as possible, 
and the soil well firmed about them. If the soil is not 
moist, the plants may well be watered, but never enough to 
make the soil wet and sticky. After transplanting is 
finished, the top soil should be loosened with the hoe or 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 411 

the rake, so that it will act as a soil mulch. Transplant- 
ing is more successful if done in cool, moist weather. 
Plants which have been grown in a hotbed or in a warm 
room should be hardened off before being planted. 

POTATOES 

Potatoes are grown in every state in the Union and are 
of increasing importance and value. They furnish a very 
large amount of valuable food from a small area of land. 

It is no longer necessary to store enough potatoes for the 
entire year's supply, for improved methods in the com- 
mercial handling of potatoes enable us to have com- 
paratively fresh potatoes always available. By digging 
potatoes as soon as they are marketable, the southern 
states supply the market until the potatoes from the 
northern states are matured, thus insuring a continuous 
supply of good quality. 

While the average yield is higher in the northern states 
than in the southern and the central states, the average 
profit to the acre does not vary much, because potatoes 
that are sold as new potatoes bring a much higher price. 

In all regions where potatoes are grown in commercial 
quantities or on large areas, machinery is used for planting, 
digging, and spraying. Under these circumstances it is 
also necessary to employ a rotation and to use fertilizers 
rather freely. 

Growing Potatoes in Kansas. Potatoes should not be 
grown on the same field several years in succession in Kan- 
sas. A good rotation for most Kansas soils consists of 
wheat after potatoes, alfalfa sown in the fall after the 
wheat, alfalfa three to five years, corn for one or two 
crops, and potatoes for one or two crops after the corn. 

Barnyard manure applied one year before the potatoes 



412 



AGRICULTURE 




The Early Ohio variety furnishes 

large proportion of the potatoes 

consumed between June 1 and Sep- 



are raised has been found to give good returns. If applied 
immediately before the potatoes are to be grown, it is liable 
to be a detriment for the first season 
if the weather is dry. The potato 
field should be thoroughly and 
deeply plowed late in the fall. 
This puts the soil into better phys- 
ical condition and may destroy 
many insects. Thorough disking in 
the spring before planting will put 
the ground into good condition for tember 1 
the crop. 

Selecting Seed. The potatoes 
most desired by the market are 
of medium size, weigh from five to 
eight ounces, and are regular in 
form, having smooth skin and well- 
set eyes. If the eyes are too 
deeply set, waste is occasioned in 
paring the potatoes. An eye that is 
not indented usually lacks vigor. 

In selecting seed, care should be 
given to choose tubers which show 
the characters of the variety. Va- 
rieties differ in form, color of the 
skin, indentation of eyes, and char- 
acter of flesh. It is important that 
oblong potatoes carry their form 
well to the terminal buds. 

In localities where earliness is essential, Early Ohio, 
Irish Cobbler, and Bliss Triumph potatoes are grown. 
Rural New Yorker, Burbank, and Carmen are later vari- 
eties. Quality seems to depend more upon conditions of 




The Bliss Triumph is round, pink, 
and smooth. 




The Rural New Yorker is an oblong 
potato, somewhat flattened, and 
ranks high in quality. 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 413 

growth than upon variety. Northern-grown seed is pre- 
ferred in Kansas. 

Planting. Potatoes for planting should be of medium 
size. The size of the seed piece should vary somewhat 
with soil and weather conditions. In localities which have 
good soil and sufficient rainfall, but in which hot weather 
is likely to cause early maturity of the vine, comparatively 
small seed pieces planted thickly seem to give better 
results. The plants are not so vigorous and begin to set 
tubers earlier in the season. Growers in the Kansas valley 
usually plant one-ej^e pieces about twelve inches apart in 
the row, the rows being about three feet apart. The ideal 
of the growers there is to get an even stand and early 
setting of tubers. Planted in this manner, a full stand, 
producing to the hill four or five tubers weighing, when 
dug, four ounces each, is a very satisfactory crop. 

In localities where the weather is cooler, the growing 
season longer, and the soil less fertile, better results are 
usually secured by doubling both the size of the seed piece 
and the distance between hills, securing a stronger plant in 
less time than by means of the smaller pieces. The cost 
of seed, the rental value of land, and the labor of growing 
must be considered, and the more profitable procedure 
adopted. 

Cultivation. Cultivation should begin early. One 
advantage of using a machine for planting is the well- 
defined ridge over the row which makes it possible to 
"blind-plow" or cultivate before the plants appear. The 
purpose of cultivation for potatoes, as for other crops, is 
to prevent weed growth and to conserve moisture. After 
the plants have got to growing, the roots extend for a 
considerable distance, and cultivation should not be so 
deep as to injure them. If potatoes are to be dug early,. 



414 



AGRICULTURE 



the soil is ridged but little. High ridging makes digging 
more difficult. If the tubers are to be left in the ground 
until late, it is desirable, after the tubers are well formed, 
to ridge rather high, in order to prevent the tubers near 
the surface from burning, and between rows, in order to 
afford drainage should heavy rains fall. Tubers rot rap- 
idly if water stands on the ground in warm weather. 




Sufficient horse power should be used to run the digger deep, the horses moving at a brisk walk. 

Mulching. In localities where rainfall is sometimes 
deficient potatoes are often grown under a mulch of straw, 
which is applied either as soon as they are planted or just 
before the plants appear. It is a more expensive method 
than cultivation, but many farmers who farm large areas 
to wheat or other grains would rather do extra work in 
early spring than take time from the harvest. 

Digging. In digging, care must be taken not to cut or 
bruise the tubers. In digging large areas horsepower 
diggers do very satisfactory work. In sandy soil elevating 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 415 

diggers are sometimes used, out in any soil that is liable 
to form clods picking and sacking by hand are more satis- 
factory. 

Storing. Storage for potatoes should be cool and neither 
very moist nor very dry; too moist storage induces rot, 
while too dry conditions tend to wilt the tubers. If the crop 
is to be left in the ground until fall it is a good plan to plant 
some cover crop to use the moisture and shade the soil. 
Turnips make a good cover crop, and are sometimes of 
considerable value for market. When the potatoes are 
dug early the ground can be easily put into good condi- 
tion for fall wheat or alfalfa. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the requirements for a good garden site? 

2. Why should garden plans be made in the fall preceding the 
planting ? 

3. What factors determine the quality of vegetables? 

4. What is the purpose of hotbeds and cold frames? How 
should you construct a hotbed? 

5. What vegetable crops require transplanting? Why? 

6. What are the essentials of good garden cultivation? 

7. Why do potato growers practice rotation? Suggest a rota- 
tion for your locality. 

8. What constitutes a good seed potato? 

9. What machinery is necessary when large areas of potatoes 
are grown? 

10. What are the advantages of mulching? 

11. What conditions are necessary for storing potatoes? 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 

Beautifying the home grounds should interest every 
member of the family. If the work is well done, it in- 
creases the value of the property and adds to the comfort 
and happiness of the home. An expenditure of a very 
few dollars in the purchase of ornamental shrubs and 
flowering plants will bring surprising results. A care- 
ful study of nature is the best guide in planning the 
grounds. Learn from the arrangement of shrubs and 




A well-planted city yard. 

plants in the fields, on the hills, and along the banks of 
streams near the home place. The best arrangement 
is secured by tastefully grouping trees, shrubs, hardy 
perennials, and annuals. Residents of country and sub- 

(416) 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 417 

urban homes have opportunities for beautifying their 
home grounds that are not possessed by the man who owns 
a home in the city. Suburban and country homes are able 
to give over large areas of land for lawn purposes, but the 
city man has to be content with a space fifty by fifteen 
feet or smaller. Large lawns admit of a great variety of 
plants and permit the owner to develop pleasing effects 
that would be impossible on a small lot. 

Shrubs. Careful selection of the best hardy plants 
growing in the vicinity will secure pleasing effects at a small 
outlay of labor. Such materials are vastly more practical 
for Kansas planting than many of the highly advertised 
novelties of the nurseryman. Dogwoods, sumachs, elder- 
berries, wild gooseberries are much hardier and better 
adapted to Kansas conditions than are rhododendrons, 
Japanese maples, mountain laurel. Among shrubs valu- 
able for the greater part of this state is Thunberg's bar- 
berry, which grows three to four feet high, with yellow 
flowers and red fruit, is a good hedge plant, and is useful 
for border plantings. Growing taller but just as useful 
are the common barberry and the purple-leaf variety. 
Bridal-wreath spirea, with its graceful arching branches 
and white flowers, is a delightful object in the landscape. 
Japanese quinces, especially the red and the white va- 
riety, should be included in every list. They bloom 
early and profusely, and occasionally bear green fruits. 
Lilacs in variety, too well known to need description, 
and the mock orange, that grandmother used to grow, 
are deserving of a place on the list. For arid regions the 
Siberian pea, the Russian olive, and the bladder senna 
will prove their worth. 

Shrubs should be arranged in groups rather than as 
single specimens. Plant them near the angles of build- 



418 



AGRICULTURE 



ings and the curves of walks and drives, and use taller 
plants in the background. 

Shrubs require very little care and will thrive in almost 
any soil and situation. Varieties may be selected for 
high, dry locations, or for low, wet places; many grow 
best in sunny situations, while a few will thrive under the 
shade of other trees. Pruning shrubs consists in taking 
out dead and crossed branches except in hedges. Shrubs 
may be set either in the spring or in the fall. 




A well-trimmed hedge adds much to the appearance of the place. 

Vines. Another important factor in beautifying the 
home grounds is the hardy vine suitable for covering brick, 
stone, and wood. A working list of climbers should con- 
tain Virginia creeper, Boston ivy, trumpet vine, wistaria, 
honeysuckle, clematis, roses, grapes, and climbing bitter- 
sweet. For porches, clematis, roses, and honeysuckles are 
the best, while stone structures welcome the cooling shade 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 



419 



of the Virginia creeper. Brick buildings may be covered 
with Boston ivy. Trellises and old fences are improved 
by a covering of trumpet vine or wistaria. It is difficult 
to find plants better fitted for hiding unsightly objects 
than the hardy climbing vines. 

Grasses. Lack of appreciation is directly responsible 
for absence of ornamental grasses in many dooryards. 




A triangular flower bed. Center, castor bean; second row, canna; third row, elephant's-ear; 
fourth row, salvia; fifth row, white vinca; sixth row, sweet alyssum. 

These grasses present coloring impossible to secure by any 
other means. They are of rapid growth and perfectly 
hardy. These plants may be used as single specimens on 
the lawn, may be planted with other grasses or with shrubs, 
or may serve as the principal object in a perennial bed. 
Trees. No planting is complete without a few or- 
namental trees. These trees will look much better if 
planted in irregular groups. Some of the more valuable 
varieties may, however, be used as individuals on the lawn, 
and it is well to arrange a few close to the buildings, for 
shade. Where conditions are favorable for their growth, 
there are few trees that can equal the different species of 



420 AGRICULTURE 

oaks and maples. Hardier, perhaps, than those just men- 
tioned and nearly as valuable are elms, hackberries, ashes, 
cottonwoods, and honey locusts. These trees present a 
great vai;iety of form and size, texture, and color. Decid- 
uous trees and shrubs insure beautiful autumn colors. 

There is another class of trees that is valuable because 
of its winter effect. No landscape should be considered 
complete if there are no evergreens on the grounds. Winter 
and summer, their leaves are green. Planted with broad- 
leaf trees, they form a pleasing contrast in color and form. 
Especially ecommended for dry regions are the red cedar, 
the bull pine, and Sabin's juniper. These trees are more 
beautiful when the branches are permitted to grow from 
near the ground. 

The Home Landscape Gardener. Shrubs, grasses, and 
trees, then, are some of the tools that the home land- 
scape gardener has at his command. To use these tools 
skilfully requires some knowledge of the principles of land- 
scape gardening. Here are a few: plant trees and shrubs 
in masses and groups; use curved lines as much as pos- 
sible; strive for unity, variety, propriety, character, and 
finish. Do not overplant, as overplanting makes the 
grounds appear smaller. Provide for distant views by 
means of open vistas. A well-arranged plan will be a 
source of delight, not only to the author, but to the many 
visitors and to those who pass the place. 

FLOWERS 

The arrangement and the care of flowers on the home 
grounds may be considered from two standpoints, that 
of the flower garden and that of the flower bed. 

The Flower Garden. The flower garden should be 
large enough to include all the best flowering plants 
that are not suitable for lawn planting. This garden should 



BEATIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 



421 



be situated in the rear of the house or the greenhouse, and 
may be laid out in rows or beds, or both. Here is 
the haven for annuals and perennials; here is the place 
for experiments and study: yet such a garden can be 




A circular flower bed for the back yard. Center, castor bean; second row, canna; third row, 
caladium, or elephant 's-ear; fourth row, salvia; fifth row, white vinca. 

so arranged as to give enjoyment to those who worship 
the beautiful. 

Flowering plants that have a long period of growth be- 
fore flowering, like the China asters, should be relegated 
to the flower garden. " Beautiful they are while in bloom, 
but their beauty fades all too quickly." Sweet peas, roses, 
tuberoses, zinnias, flags, columbines, peonies, hardy 
phloxes, hardy asters, many of the ornamental grasses, 
some shrubs, and several bulb-forming plants furnish splen- 
did material for building up the flower garden. 



422 AGRICULTURE 

The size of the flower garden will depend largely on the 
amount of ground available for such a purpose. After 
deciding upon the location and the size, draw a plan of the 
garden, indicating walks, beds, and the names and the 
number of different plants. Adhere strictly to this plan 
unless there is some very important reason for making a 
change. Several authorities suggest the laying out of the 
flower garden in geometrical figures. This increases the 
work and adds an artificial appearance to the garden. 

Flower Beds. Some of the simpler forms of bed are 
the circle, the triangle, the rectangle, the square, and the 
irregular outline. Any of these may be easily constructed. 
Their future usefulness depends entirely on good taste 
in selecting plants to fill them. On small estates a simple 
design is much better than scroll work or complex figures. 
One word of caution, however — do not cut the lawn to 
pieces with too many flower beds. A few, well arranged, 
will be a source of delight and satisfaction, but it is neces- 
sary to use sound judgment. 

Thorough preparation of the soil is an absolute neces- 
sity. Dig deep, at least two feet, and enrich the ground 
with either barnyard manure or commercial fertilizer. 
A layer of well-rotted manure spaded into the soil will 
always be beneficial. If the soil is very thin and poor, 
remove it to the depth of two feet and fill the space with 
rich, porous loam. For the best success with the home 
flower garden, plenty of water is necessary. Water pipes, 
with fifty or a hundred feet of rubber hose, will lessen the 
chances of failure twenty-five per cent. Flower beds in 
Kansas should be made level with, or a little below, the 
surrounding ground, so as to catch all the moisture possible. 

The location of the different kinds of plants will depend 
upon the needs of each variety. Many plants succeed 



BEAUTIFYING THE HOME GROUNDS 423 

well in a shaded location, while others require plentiful 
sunlight. A mixed bed, unless made up of perennials, is 
not so effective as a mass of one kind or color. 

Ornamental flower beds, if properly handled, give the 
lawn an appearance of life, and add materially to the 
variety of the landscape. In laying out the flower beds, 
knowledge of how large each plant will grow, what color 
of flower, if any, it will bear, and how much pruning it will 
stand, is extremely important. A flower bed with sweet 
alyssum and lobelias in the center and cannas and castor 
beans around the outside would have the proper ingre- 
dients, but would be lacking in taste. 

A few simple beds may be arranged thus, in circular or 
other shape: 

Inner row Coleus, Red Verschafl'elti. 

Second row Coleus, Gold Bedder (yellow leaves). 

Third row Achyranthes (red). 

Inner row Snapdragon (cream-colored). 

Second row Phlox (choice). 

Third row Verbena (choice). 

Inner row Canna (red- or green-leafed, large flowering). 

Second row Salvia (Red Sage). 

Third row Vinca (pink.) 

Fourth row Vinca (white.) 

Inner row Century Plant. 

Second row Coleus (yellow). 

Third row Alternanthera (red). 

Fourth row Alternanthera (yellow). 

Inner row Banana. 

Second row Caladium. 

Third row Dwarf Canna (red-leafed). 

Fourth row Dwarf Canna (green-leafed). 

Inner row Tulips (red). 

Second row Tulips (red). 

Third row Tulips (yellow). 

Fourth row Tulips (pink) or Dutch Hyacinths (vari- 
colored). 



424 AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the practical value of planting trees, shrubs, and 
flowers on the home grounds? 

2. In selecting shrubs for the home grounds, what points should 
be considered? 

3. Name three shrubs suitable for planting in arid regions. 

4. Discuss the care and pruning of shrubs. 

5. Explain the uses to which vines may be put. 

6. Why should evergreens be given a place on the lawn? 

7. Explain the principles of landscape gardening as applied to 
home planting. 

8. How do flower beds differ from flower gardens? 

9. Give concise instructions for the preparation of soil for the 
flower bed. 

10. What arrangement of flowers should be made for a circular 
flower bed ten feet in diameter? 




' r-^Mi 







CHAPTER XXXV 



BIRDS 

Birds have always been appreciated for their songs and 
bright colors, but it is only recently that people have 
realized their great economic value. The United States De- 
partment of Agriculture and many students have learned 
much about the habits of birds, especially their feeding 
habits. What various 
birds eat during the -day 
is learned either by ob- 
servation or by an ex- 
amination of the contents 
of their stomachs. 
Through such studies it 
has been discovered that 
birds are very important, 
and now in most states 
they are protected either 
by state or by national 
laws. All the Kansas 
birds save one are pro- 
tected at least to some extent by state and national laws. 
A statement of the bird law may be obtained from the 
State Fish and Game Warden at Topeka, Kansas. 

The most common and helpful birds feed upon seeds and 
insects. A few birds on a farm perform a great service to 
the farmer. Winter birds are especially helpful, for every 

(425) 




The food of the house wren. 1, Bug; 2, May 
fly; 3, weevil; 4, grasshopper; 5, cutworm; 6, 
spider. 



426 AGRICULTURE 

seed or insect destroyed in winter is equivalent to several 
hundred destroyed the next summer. The disappearance 
or the sudden reduction in numbers of birds in a locality, is 
frequently followed by an alarming increase in the hordes 
of destructive insects, and at times by an unusual growth 
of weeds. If properly encouraged and protected, the birds 
on the farm will increase and become exceedingly helpful 
to the farmer. 

When Birds are Helpful. The time when birds are 
most helpful depends upon where they spend the different 
seasons of the year. Everybody knows about the migra- 
tion of blackbirds, robins, bluebirds, and hosts of others. 
But there are many birds about which most of us know 
little. 

Those birds which are here only for the summer are 
called summer residents. In the autumn, when food be- 
comes scarce, they leave, some of them singly, some in 
pairs, and many in flocks. They go for the most part at 
night. The flights average perhaps twenty-five miles 
every twenty-four hours. Of course, birds halt, pass each 
other, and linger along as food and weather permit. These 
birds spend the winter in the Gulf States, Mexico, Central 
America, the Bermudas, and the West Indies. Blackbirds, 
orioles, warblers, blue jays, bluebirds, and meadow larks 
belong largely to this class, though some of these remain 
here over winter. 

A few species of birds from farther north find the climate 
of Kansas so agreeable that they spend the winter here 
rather than farther south. These are called winter so- 
journers. Certain shrikes, snowbirds, waxwings, and 
native sparrows belong to this group. Still others— the 
residents— stay here the year round. In this class may be 
included a few blue jays, bluebirds, meadow larks, robins, 



BIRDS 



427 



and redbirds, and nearly all of our owls, hawks, quails, 
chickadees, nuthatches, horned larks, and woodpeckers. 

Members of another group, called the migrants, are 
found here only as they pass through the country in their 
spring or autumnal flight. The most numerous example 
of these are the water fowls. Unlike the song birds, they 
usually fly in daytime. 

Protectors of the Orchard. The chickadee, the nut- 
hatch, the titmouse, and the brown creeper are very help- 
ful in the orchard. These and the downy and the hairy 
woodpeckers render great service by searching in tiny 




The food of the robin. 

holes and crevices for small insects and insect eggs. By 
fastening bits of suet, scraps of meat, or broken bones to 
branches of trees, one may encourage birds to frequent 
an orchard. 

Robins, catbirds, brown thrashers, mocking birds, and 



428 AGRICULTURE 

orioles also render great service to orchards, groves, and 
gardens. The little fruit taken by these birds by no means 
equals in value what they save from destruction by insects. 
Some smaller summer birds, such as warblers and wrens, 
feed among the trees, on insects that infest the foliage. 

Protectors of Field and Garden. A great number of 
birds help to protect the farmer's field crops. Some of 
them help chiefly by eating weed seed, while others feed 
upon both seeds and insects. Four or five species of na- 
tive sparrows and the longspurs, or snowbirds, are espe- 
cially valuable because of the enormous numbers of weed 
seeds which they destroy. Sometimes one of these birds 
eats more than a thousand seeds in a single day. Meadow 
larks and blackbirds feed upon both seeds and insects. 
These birds continue their work throughout the year. In 
summer they destroy immense numbers of insects and 
insect larvae, while in winter they feed chiefly on seeds. 

The quail is perhaps the farmer's most valuable and 
faithful friend among the birds. This bird eats great 
numbers of pigweed, ragweed, pigeon grass, and other weed 
seeds. Quails also destroy many insects which other birds 
seldom or never eat and which are especially destructive. 
Among these are the potato beetle, the cucumber beetle, 
and the chinch bug. Farmers should protect and en- 
courage these birds by supplying them with shelter and 
food in winter. Strips of sorghum, kafir, and other crops 
left in out-of-the-way places serve these purposes. 

Other Bird Friends. Hawks and owls render great 
service by destroying mice, gophers, ground squirrels, and 
even rabbits. They, too, work throughout the year. These 
birds are frequently misjudged, and many harmless ones 
are often destroyed. Most large hawks seldom if ever 
touch poultry. Two or three species of hawks and the 




Bird hoiwes. 1 Section of hollow limb; 2, rough shingles; 3, shed-roofed house; 4, A-shaped house 
5, gabled house; 6, tomato can; 7, hollow limb; 8, box house; 9, willow-bark house. 



430 AGRICULTURE 

large "hooter" owl are the only ones which frequently or 
habitually attack poultry. None of these birds should be 
destroyed until the farmer is sure they are destroying 
poultry. Nighthawks, swallows, kingbirds, and many 
others are helpful and should be protected. 

Protecting and Encouraging Birds. One may en- 
courage birds to remain about the farm by furnishing them 
with suitable nesting places, making sure that they have a 
place to get water, and in severe weather furnishing them 
with food. A thicket of native shrubs in a favorable place 
will serve not only as a windbreak, but also as a bird home. 

One should learn to know the birds and their habits, to 
appreciate their beauty and friendliness, to value their 
services, and to help repay in little kindnesses the great 
service that they render. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what way are birds helpful to the farmer? How has this 
been proved? 

2. When are the various kinds of birds most helpful? How is 
it possible for winter birds to be helpful? 

3. Name some of the birds which help to protect the orchard- 
How do they render this service? 

4. Discuss in the same way the birds of the fields and garden. 

5. Name some birds generally believed to be harmful, and tell 
how they are helpful to farmers. 

6. How may farmers and their families help the birds? 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

GOOD ROADS 

An intelligent business man or manufacturer seeking a 
location for his plant gives first consideration to the means 
for transporting his products. Farming is a business, and 
the farm is the plant. The product of the business must 
be transported, and the farmer, as much as any other 
business man, needs to consider the means of transporta- 
tion. A road system is a means of transportation, just as 
a line of boats or a railroad system is a means of trans- 
portation. 

The Importance of Good Roads. Good roads are so 
important to the financial, social, and educational well- 
being of the community that no enumeration of their 
advantages is likely to include all the benefits. Extending 
in various directions, they form the arteries of life of the 
town or community. They are the currents of traffic, and, 
as such, their condition frequently means profit or loss 
on the sale of produce or determines the ability of one 
community to compete with another. 

Good roads add to social advantages. Good roads 
strengthen the country church, tend toward better living, 
and bring a good class of citizens into the community. 
They do this because they permit easier travel between the 
people on the farms and the people in the cities. Good 
roads also encourage the extension and improvement of 
rural mail and parcel post service. They also make pos- 
sible better educational and religious advantages for the 

farm boys and girls. 

(431) 



432 



AGRICULTURE 



Good roads reduce the time and the cost of transporta- 
tion. To be able to haul large loads is important in 
marketing crops and heavy articles. To get material to 
market quickly is important in handling perishable pro- 
ducts, or during the busy season. Both of these advantages 
come with good roads. On ordinary roads it costs from 
twenty to fifty cents to haul a ton a mile. This is four 
times as much as the cost on a good road. By makifig the 




A good road. Farm products can be marketed in any kind of weather 365 days in the year, on 
this highly improved macadam road in Cowley county. 

road surface smoother and harder throughout the year, 
we can make a great saving in time and in cost of hauling. 
Good roads enable a farmer to market his products at 
all times of the year. He can always get things to market 
when prices are high or when he can not work in the field, 
and he is not in danger of losing produce because it spoils 
before he can market it. This is especially important in 
the case of dairy, poultry, orchard, and garden products. 
Roads which can be used at any season or in any kind of 



GOOD ROADS 



433 



weather help to equalize the farmer's work and prevent a 
rush season. 

Good roads help reduce the high cost of living. Lower- 
ing the cost of hauling helps make products cheaper. 
Ability to use the roads at all times enables us to market 
and use home-grown fruits and vegetables which otherwise 
would spoil and necessitate the shipping in of similar 
products. The farmer can come oftener to market with 
such products and so prevent loss to himself and the 
merchant, and thus reduce the price to the consumer. 
Good roads benefit buyer and seller, in the country and in 
town, and help every member of the fj:,m.ily, boys and girls 
as well as men and women. 




A liiitl ToMi. Tlif must expensive type of road. 

Locating a Road. The early trails and state roads of 
Kansas were properly located on the best ground obtain- 
able, regardless of section lines. The first legislative act 
declaring the section lines to be the center of the highways 
was passed in 1860. This applied, however, only to Brown 

28 



434 AGRICULTURE 

county. In 1871 the section lines in fourteen other 
counties were declared to be the centers of the public 
highways, and from that time on the roads have been laid 
out almost exclusively on the section lines, regardless 
of proper location, hills, character of soil, safety of 
traffic, first cost, maintenance expenses, or convenience or 
economy of traffic. As a result of this poor method of 
locating roads, thousands of dangerous, unnecessary rail- 
road grade crossings and expensive bridges are maintained. 
Wherever it is practical, the highways should parallel the 
railroads instead of crossing them, go around the hills 
instead of over them, and avoid all unnecessary stream 
crossings. In other words, all public highways should be 
laid out on the sensible, practical, natural locations. In 
no case should the public good be sacrificed for the interest 
of the individual. 

The Width of Roads. There is a tendency to lay out 
public highways wider than is necessary. This is a poor 
practice, for any extra width not only means a loss of 
valuable land to the farmers and to the state, but is an 
absolute detriment to the road, as the extra width only 
gives a place for weeds and brush to grow. Also, when 
roads are too wide, inexperienced road officials often waste 
public money in trying to grade up and maintain roads 
forty to sixty feet wide between the centers of the side 
ditches. 

For state or county roads the width of the right of way 
need not exceed sixty feet, except in special cases where 
heavy cuts or fills are necessary. On township roads the 
right of way need not exceed fifty feet, except in special 
cases. 

The cross sections for the different classes of roads 
shown in the accompanying figure give such width, 
crown, and shape of side ditches as have proved satis- 



GOOD ROADS 



435 



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Drawings giving details for building various kinds of roads. 

factory for average Kansas conditions. In heavy clay 
and gumbo soils, the crown of the road should be increased 
to provide good surface drainage. 

The distance between curbs on paved streets in resi- 



436 AGRICULTURE 

dence districts of cities is from twenty to forty feet, aver- 
aging about thirty feet. This is ample width to accommo- 
date the traffic and to leave space for a parking on either 
side, which materially reduces the first cost and mainte- 
nance expenses of paving, and adds beauty to the street. 

The Classification of Roads. The commissioners of 
each county in Kansas are required to classify the roads, ac- 
cording to their relative importance, as state roads, county 
roads, mail routes, and township roads. State roads are 
highways which have been designated as such by the 
legislature; county roads are the highways connecting the 
cities and the market centers, and are located as nearly 
continuously from one county to the next as practicable; 
mail routes are such highways used by rural mail carriers 
as have not been designated as state or county roads; all 
other public highways are township roads. 

State and county roads are constructed and maintained 
under the direction of the three county commissioners and 
the county engineer at general county expense. The high- 
ways designated as mail routes and township roads are 
constructed and maintained by the three township high- 
way commissioners and the county engineer at township 
expense, except that the county is required to pay for the 
construction and maintenance of all bridges costing more 
than $200. 

Expenditures for Roads. There are about 110,000 miles 
of public roads in the state, and in round numbers the 
counties and townships of Kansas spend $5,000,000 an- 
nually for country roads. This amount exceeds the total 
cost of running the state government, including all the 
state educational and charitable institutions, and equals 
almost one-half of all the expenditures for public schools. 

Probably as much as $35,000,000 has been spent in the 
last ten years on roads, bridges, and culverts, chiefly in 



GOOD ROADS 



437 



keeping the roads in repair. Less than one per cent of 
the roads have been surfaced with clay, oil, macadam, 
gravel, concrete, and brick, and probably less than twenty- 




A concrete bridse. The permanency of this structure is plainly evident. 

five per cent of the earth roads are kept thoroughly 
dragged. 

About $3,000,000 has been paid annually for the con- 
struction and maintenance of bridges and culverts, many 
of which were built of steel, wood, and corrugated metal, 
and must in a comparatively short time be replaced. If 
good stone or concrete had been used the cost would 
have been little, if any, increased, and the structures 
would have been permanent. 

Not less than $1,500,000 annually has been spent on 
earth roads. A small part of this has been used for reduc- 
ing grades and performing permanent work, and a part 
for dragging. 

Road Management. Usually there are too many road 
officials, most of whom are untrained. One- third of the 
present number of road officers could, if trained, do the 
work more efficiently and economically than it is now 
done. Road making is a business, and a good road offi- 
cer should be educated for this work. He should not be 



438 



AGRICULTURE 



a busy farmer who must neglect either his road work or 
his farm business. 

Some of the better features of road management in the 
various states are : 

1. A state highway office which has general super- 
vision of road and bridge work, establishes standards for 




A concrete culvert. This culvert in Wabaunsee county will require no repairs and will last forever. 



road and bridge construction, assists and advises county 
engineers, and generally organizes and systematizes the 
work. 

2. A county engineer, who is a trained road and bridge 
builder, selected by civil service, and is a deputy of the 
state highway office. He works under the authority 
of the county officials and has general supervision of the 
road and bridge construction and maintenance work in 
the county. His approval is required for plans and speci- 
fications and for all materials and machinery purchased. 

3. The selection of all overseers and supervisors for 
their ability and training. They are employed as nearly 



GOOD ROADS 439 

continuously as possible, so that road making may become 
their business. They report directly to the county engineer. 

A well-organized system of road management which 
will put road making in the hands of experts always results 
in better and more permanent roads at less final cost to 
the people. 

Road Drainage. Drainage will often change a bad 
earth road to a good one. On poorly drained roads, rain 
and snow soften the earth, the horses' feet and the wagon 
wheels mix and knead it, and soon the road becomes im- 
passable. If the water is allowed to run down the middle 
of the road it will wash away the road material and leave 
ruts in the surface. No road, however good it may be 
otherwise, can last long if water collects or remains on it. 
Prompt and thorough drainage is important in all road 
construction, particularly the construction of earth roads. 
There can be no good roads without it. 

In making a good road it is necessary to provide for 
both surface drainage and underdrainage. The surface 
drainage of a road is provided by rounding up or crowning 
the traveled section and keeping it smooth. The slope 
from the center to the sides should be sufficiently steep so 
that the water will be carried freely and quickly to the 
side ditches. If the surface is kept smooth and free from 
ruts and holes, less crown will be required. The amount 
of crown necessary varies with different kinds of soil. A 
sandy soil may drain well and give entire satisfaction with 
a crown of one-half to three-quarters of an inch to the foot, 
but in heavy clay or gumbo one and one-half inches to the 
foot may be required to provide adequate fall to carry the 
water away from the center of the road freely. For ordi- 
nary soils a crown of about one inch to the foot is generally 
satisfactory. This provides sufficient fall to get rid of the 
water, and is comfortable for driving. 



440 AGRICULTURE 

The side ditches are constructed to collect the water 
from the surface of the road and to intercept that which 
comes in from the fields. They should have a continuous 
fall to enable the water to be carried rapidly and entirely 
away from the road. The side ditches should have a con- 
tinuous uniform grade from the highest point to the nearest 
outlet, and should be made wide and fiat so that if a team 
is crowded or shies off the road there will be little danger 
of the vehicle's overturning. Water does not flow so 
rapidly in a flaring ditch as in a V-shaped one, and if the 
water is spread out in a thin sheet the grass and weeds and 
the rough surface of the ground obstruct its flow very 
materially. When the sides are made steep, however, only 
a small amount of water will have a considerable depth. 
This condition gives the water a high velocity which carries 
everything before it, and in a short time great gullies are 
formed. If possible, the side slopes should be shaped so 
that a mowing machine can be used to cut the grass and 
weeds which grow upon them. 

At all wet, low places in a road tile drain should be 
employed to lower the water table. Tile is cheap, and, if 
placed in a substantial manner and according to the rules 
of common sense, will last for ages. 

Earth Road Construction. Nearly half of the road- 
grading work in Kansas is done between October 1 and 
January 1. This practice of grading the roads in the fall 
is wrong, for the money so spent is generally wasted, and 
many times the road is worse than it would have been had 
it not been touched, for there is not a sufficient length of 
time after the grading is done to compact the loose earth 
before winter. 

Grading must be done when the ground is wet enough 
to be worked and compacted well, and to form a good 
wearing surface. This can best be done by grading before 



GOOD ROADS 



441 



August 1 — the sooner after April 1 the better. In the 
spring or early summer the ground is loose and will work 
easily, and the roots of the grass and weeds do not interfere 
at this season. 

Using the Grader. In the building of new roads with 
a road grader the dead weeds and grass should be 
burned off before any grading work is done, and the width 




A so-called permanent patented reinforced concrete arch bridge after six months' use. The 
structure was 250 feet long. 

of the road to be graded should be staked so that the side 
ditches can be properly lined up; then a light furrow 
should be plowed with the point of the grader blade to 
mark definitely the lines of the ditches. The work then 
should be continued until the entire width to be graded has 
been well rounded up, including cutting off the material 
on the outside of the ditches to a slope of about one foot 
vertical to one and one-half feet horizontal. Then the road 
should be filled full and round, and the loose material thor- 
oughly harrowed with an ordinary straight-tooth harrow, if 
there are no clods, until the bumps have been leveled off and 



442 



AGRICULTURE 



the low places filled up and the material has been well 
compacted. If there are sods or tough lumps of earth in 
the road a disk harrow should be used to pulverize this 




This bridge was practically new when the engine attempted to cross but broke through and fell 
twenty-five feet, killing the driver. 

material, and the harrow should be followed by a road drag 
or a straight-tooth harrow to level and smooth the earth. 
No newly graded earth road can be finished in good shape 
without the use of a harrow or a drag, or of both. To com- 
pact the earth, a roller should follow the harrowing. It 
will reveal the soft spots, and new material can be placed 
in these and the whole surface made smooth, even, and 
uniform. If the earth is thoroughly compacted and the 
small depressions are removed, ruts will not form nearly so 
readily, and heavy rains will not cause great gullies, such 
as are often seen on newly graded roads after a heavy 
rainstorm. 



GOOD ROADS 443 

It costs from $15 to $50 a mile to grade an ordinary 
earth road thirty feet wide. The cost depends upon the 
soil and the condition of the road, the time when the work 
is done, and the price of labor. 

Earth Road Maintenance. Every spring, before the 
ground becomes too hard, the road should be gone over 
thoroughly with the road grader, to clean out the ditches, 




A road drag. 

SO that the water may have a free outlet. Ruts and holes 
should be filled, elevations in the road and shoulders on the 
side of the road should be planed off, and the road should 
be put into good condition generally. 

Earth roads have a pronounced tendency to form ruts. 
When ruts begin to appei^r on the surface, they should be 
immediately filled with carefully selected new material. 
A fundamental principle in the repair of any road is 
that, whatever material is used in the construction of 



444 AGRICULTURE 

the surface, the same material and no other should be 
used in its repair. A road with a surface of clay should 
be repaired only with clay, a gravel road with gravel, 
and a surface of limestone with limestone. In road sur- 
facing, however, a clay road is often improved by the 
use of sand, and a sand road by being surfaced with a 
foot of clay. 

Every hole or rut in the roadway, if not stamped full of 
the same material as that of which the road is con- 




One of the most dangerous and most inexcusable places in the road. 

structed, will become filled with water and will be made 
deeper and wider by each passing vehicle. A hole which 
could have been filled with a shovelful of material will 
soon need a wagon load. To repair a rut or mudhole, it 
should be cleansed of dust, mud and water; then just a 
sufficient amount of good fresh earth should be placed in 
it to bring it even with the surrounding surface after being 
thoroughly consolidated with a tamper or roller. 

In no case should sod be placed in or on the road sur- 
face, nor should the surface be ruined by having thrown 



GOOD ROADS 44a 

upon it the worn-out material from the gutters along the 
sides. 

When an earth road has been properly crowned and 
adequate drainage has been provided, there is no other 
method of maintaining it in good condition so effectively, 
so economically, and with so little effort, as the constant 
use of the drag. 

Bridges and Culverts. Much as we need improved 
roads, we need permanent bridges and culverts more; for, 
if the road is to be used at all, the bridges and culverts 
must be in good condition. We now know that if bridges 
and culverts are built of first-class concrete or of good 
stone there will be practically no maintenance charges 
and the structures will be almost everlasting. Therefore, 
only such materials should, whenever practical, be used in 
constructing bridges and culverts. Concrete or stone 
work, to be permanent, must be built in compliance with 
standard engineering practice, under rigid inspection. 

If bridges and culverts are to be permanent, they not 
only must be properly designed and well built, but must 
also provide adequate openings to carry the water and 
ample width of roadway to carry modern traffic with 
safety. 

Many bridges and culverts are built entirely too small 
to carry the water that will come to them. All small 
bridges and culverts in Kansas should be large enough to 
provide about one hundred square feet of waterway for each 
square mile of watershed ; that is, a small bridge or culvert 
carrying the rainfall from 640 acres of land should have an 
opening about ten feet long and ten feet high. The road- 
way of each of these structures must be wide enough to 
permit the passage of all farm machinery and ordinary 
traffic. All bridges should have a clear width of at least 
eighteen feet to care for this traffic safely, and culvertS; 



446 AGRICULTURE 

those structures having a span of less than ten feet, should 
in no case have a roadway of less than twenty feet in the 
clear. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In buying a farm home, why should the conditions of the 
highways be considered carefully? 

2. What are some of the benefits of good roads to the farmer? 

3. What are the disadvantages of locating roads on the section 
lines? 

4. Where should the roads be located? 

5. Why are wide right of ways objectionable? 

6. What should be the graded width of roads for the different 
classes of highways? 

7. Define a state road; a county road; a mail route; a township 
road. 

8. How are the different classes of roads managed, and how is 
the work pa.d for? 

9. What are some features of a good system of road manage- 
ment? 

10. Since thorough drainage is an absolute necessity in the con- 
struction and maintenance of a good road, how can it be obtained? 

11. What is the proper time to grade roads? 

12. In constructing a road with a grader, how should the work 
be done? 

13. How should an earth road be maintained? 

14. Why is the drag an efficient road tool? 

15. Why do concrete bridges sometimes fall down? 

16. How large an opening must a culvert have to carry a six- 
inch fall of rain from 160 acres of land? 

17. How wide should the clear roadway be on bridges and cul- 
verts? 



APPENDIX 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 

The teacher should keep constantly in mind that the 
teaching of agriculture, in at least two respects, closely 
resembles the teaching of English. First, we are dealing 
with material about which the pupil knows considerable 
and with which he has had more or less experience. For 
that reason the pupil is able to cover more ground than in 
subjects with which he is wholly unacquainted. Second, 
just as the chief problem of the teacher of English is to 
correct wrong habits of speech and show the reasons for 
proper usage, so the teacher of agriculture must endeavor 
to give such information as will lead to the abandonment 
of poor agricultural practice, and must at the same time 
teach thoroughly the reason underlying the better practice. 
Two suggestions follow from this: (1) Do not drag the 
work along and tire the pupils with needless discussions 
of things which their experience will enable them to grasp 
instantly; (2) Emphasize principles or reasons underlying 
practice. Scarcely any rule of agricultural practice can be 
laid down which applies universally, but fundamental 
principles may be taught which can be constantly and in- 
telligently applied. The study of agriculture is a study of 
these principles and their application, rather than an 
attempt to master a mass of detail concerning agricultural 
practice. 

Correlate this work with reading, spelling, composition, 
and drawing. Make agriculture felt throughout the school 
just as it must be felt throughout the pupil's life. 

This book is made larger than the ordinary textbook in 

(447) 



448 AGRICULTURE 

order that supplemental reading matter may not be so 
necessary, but the live teacher will not neglect to en- 
courage and train pupils to use other literature. The farm 
papers which come to homes in the district, bulletins, 
reports of the State Board of Agriculture, and reference 
books should be used. 

Agriculture is primarily a study of things, and the child 
should learn from the object itself and by action where 
possible. Especially in the fall and the spring the teacher 
should take trips with the class when possible. A trip 
may be made to a field to study flowers, roots, soils, 
or weeds. The object may be a summary or review of 
what has been learned about a crop such as corn, sorghum, 
or alfalfa. It may be to inspect a newly seeded or sprout- 
ing field of wheat, or to learn something of the physical 
condition of the soil in a field which has had special treat- 
ment. Some of the work may be much better done indoors. 
Pupils may practice budding and grafting and even 
demonstrate pruning in a small way by using branches of 
trees. There may be exercises in grain judging, fruit judg- 
ing, and seed testing. Some seed testing should, if pos- 
sible, be done by each pupil. The chief problem here 
is to keep the schoolroom warm enough at night to pre- 
vent freezing. Test not only corn, but alfalfa, garden, 
and other seeds. 

Many schools may well have a hotbed on the grounds. 
Building the frame, digging the pit, and other necessary 
tasks will furnish healthful exercise for the pupils at noon 
and at recess. Usually old window sashes may be bor- 
rowed and the frame made to fit them. Such a hotbed 
should be used to start plants which pupils may take home 
and plant in the home garden. Such plants as tomatoes, 
cabbage, peppers, sweet potatoes, and ornamental or 
flowering plants, may be started. This work will very 



APPENDIX 449 

quickly carry the teaching into the home practice. This 
is the only kind of school gardening practicable in most 
country schools. 

Do not neglect some attempt to improve the school 
grounds. If you do nothing more, clear off the stones, 
weeds, and other trash. Usually the teacher can help ar- 
range the playground so that it will present a neat appear- 
ance, and she may even secure some apparatus. Where 
any care can be given during the summer, some shrub or 
tree planting should be done. Evergreen and other trees 
may be obtained from the State Forester, Kansas State 
Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. 

Do not neglect the work of Boys' Corn Clubs and Girls' 
Canning Clubs. These organizations will help to vitalize 
your teaching of agriculture. Information concerning 
these clubs may be secured from the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, or from the 
Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas. 
Application to the Division of Publications, Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, will bring a list of gov- 
ernment bulletins classified for the use of teachers. 

REFERENCE BOOKS 

The following list contains the names of some of the 
better of the recent books on farming. The list is by no 
means complete. It does not include technically scientific 
books, nor books devoted entirely to specialties. All the 
books in the list have been written by men who are 
thoroughly dependable. None of the popular compilations 
on agriculture upon which little or no dependence can be 
placed, have been included. 

From this list the teacher and the board of education 
may select books which not only will furnish supplemen- 
tary work for the school, but will be a complete library of 



450 AGRICULTURE 

ready reference for the farmers in the community. A few 
well-selected books from this list should be a part of every 
school library. 

FOR THE TEACHER 

Coulter, J. G., and Patterson, A. J. Practical Nature Study. 

New York: D. Appleton & Company. $1.35 net. 
Call, L. E., and Shafer, E. C. Laboratory Manual in Agriculture. 

New York: The Macmillan Company. 90 cents net. 

SOILS 

Vivian, Alfred. First Principles of Soil Fertility. New York: 

Orange Judd Company. $1 net. 
Burkett, C. W. Soils. New York: Orange Judd Company. $1.25. 
Whitson, a. R., and Walster, H. L. Soils and Soil Fertility. St. 

Paul, Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1.25 net. 
Fletcher, S. W. Soils. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Page 

& Company., $2 net. 

FARM CROPS 

Wilson, A. D., and Warburton, C. W. Field Crops. St. Paul, 

Minn.: Webb Publishing Company. $1. 
Livingston, George. Field Crop Production. New York: The 

Macmillan Company. $1.40 net. 
Montgomery, E. G. Corn Crops. New York: The Macmillan 

Company. $1.60 net. 
Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America. New York: Orange Judd 

Company. $1.75. 
Hunt, T. F. The Forage and Fiber Crops in America. New York: 

Orange Judd Company. $1.75. 
BORMAN, T. A. Sorghums: Sure Money Crops. Topeka: Kansas 

Farmer Company. $1.25 net. 

ORCHARDING AND GARDENING 

Sears, F. C. Productive Orcharding. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippin- 
cott Company. $1.50. 

Green, S. B. Popular Fruit Growing. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb 
Publishing Company. $1. 

Bailey, L. H. Principles of Fruit Growing. New York: The 
Macmillan Company. $1.50 net. 

Bailey, L. H. Principles of Vegetable Gardening. New York: The 
Macmillan Company. $1.50. 

Green, S. B. Vegetable Gardening. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb Pub- 
lishing Company. $1. 

LIVE STOCK 

Harper, M. W. Animal Husbandry for Schools. New York: 

The Macmillan Company. $1.40 net. 
Plumb, C. S. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, St. Paul, Minn.: 

Webb Publishing Company. $1.25 net. 



APPENDIX 451 

Henry, W. A. Feeds and Feeding. Madison, Wis.: Author. $2.25. 

Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. Boston: Ginn 
& Company. .$2 net. 

Smith, H. R. Profitable Stock Feeding. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb 
Publishing Company. $1.50. 

Craig, J. A. Live Stock Judging. Des Moines, Iowa: Kenyon 
Printing Company. 

MuMFORD, H. W. Beef Production. Urbana, 111.: Author. $1.50. 

Johnstone, J. H. S. The Horse Book. Chicago: Sanders Pub- 
lishing Company. $2. 

Dawson, H. C. The Hog Book. Chicago, 111.: Breeder's Gazette. 
$1.50. 

Craig, J. A., and Marshall, F. R. Sheep Farming. New York: 
The Macmillan Company, $1.50 net. 

DAIRYING 

EcKLES, C. H. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production. New York: 

The Macmillan Company. $1.60 net. 
Wing, H. H. Milk and Its Products. New York: The Macmillan 

Company. $1.50 net. 

POULTRY 

Purvis, Miller. Poultry Breeding. Chicago: Sanders Publishing 
Company. $1.50. 

Watson, G. C. Farm Poultry. New York: The Macmillan Com- 
pany. $1.50 net. 

LiPPiNCOTT, W. A. Poultry Production. Philadelphia: Lea & 
Febiger. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Warren, G. F. Farm Management. New York: Tlie Macmillan 
Company. $1.75 net. 

Ekblaw, K. J. Farm Structures. New York: The Macmillan 
Company. $1.75 net. 

Davidson, J. B. Agricultural Engineering. St. Paul, Minn.: Webb 
Publishing Company. $1.50. 

Powell, G. H. Cooperation in Agriculture. New York: The Mac- 
millan Company. $1.50 net. 

Coulter, J. L. Cooperation among Farmers. New York: Sturgis 
and Walton Company. 75 cents. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING THE BABCOCK TEST 

Apparatus for making the Babcock test, including 
glassware, acid, and directions, may be purchased from 
dealers in dairy supplies. Following is a list of the ap- 
paratus necessary: a 17.6 cc. pipette; a 17.5 cc. acid 
measure; test bottles; dividers; a water bath; a centrifuge; 
sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.83 to 1.84. 



452 AGRICULTURE 

The milk to be tested and the acid to be used should be 
brought to a temperature of about 70 degrees; this can best 
be done by means of the hot -water bath. 

Following are directions for making the test: 

1. Pour the sample of milk from one vessel to another 
at least five times. 

2. Take the pipette between the thumb and the second 
and third fingers, leaving the index finger free; draw the 
milk into the pipette immediately after stirring it, and 
place the index finger over the top of the pipette; now 
release the finger very slightly until the top of the milk 
column is even with the mark on the pipette. 

3. Hold the milk bottle at a slant and place the end of 
the pipette in the neck of the bottle, leaving an opening 
for air so that air bubbles can not form and throw the 
milk out of the neck; release the finger and allow the milk 
to flow into the bottle; blow the last drop from the pipette. 

4. Fill the acid measure to the mark (never draw the 
acid into the pipette); take the milk bottle by the neck 
between the thumb and the fingers of the left hand so that 
the bottle can be turned; now bring the lip of the acid 
measure to the mouth of the bottle and pour the acid into 
the bottle, rotating the bottle so that all the milk will be 
washed from the neck into the bottle, and holding the 
bottle at a slant so that the acid will not fall directly 
upon the milk and thus form pieces of charred curd. 

5. Give the bottle a rotary motion in order to cause a 
gradual mixture of milk and acid; sudden mixing will 
cause the formation of large amounts of heat and gas, and 
will throw the material out of the bottle. 

6. After the bottle has been stirred thoroughly and the 
curd is dissolved, place the bottle in the centrifuge and 
whirl it for five minutes. 



APPENDIX 453 

7. Place the bottle in a water bath of 180° F. for five 
minutes, then fill the bottle to the neck with hot water. 

8. Whirl the bottle in the centrifuge for two minutes. 

9. Place the bottle in the water bath for five minutes 
and fill it with hot water to within one-half inch of the top. 

10. Whirl the bottle in the centrifuge for two minutes. 

11. Place the bottle in a water bath, 130° F., for five 
minutes. 

12. Measure the fat column by placing one point of the 
dividers at the bottom and the other at the top; then, 
keeping the two points that distance apart, place one 
point on the zero mark and then note where the other 
point falls on the scale; the figure on which it falls in- 
dicates the per cent of fat in the milk. 



454 AGRICULTURE 

Seed Table for Field Crops Adapted to Kansas 



Namh. 



Amount of seed 
to plant to 
the acre. 



Alfalfa (broadcast) 10 

Alfalfa (drilled) 8 

Barley 4 

Bean, field (small varieties) 2 

Bean, field (large) 5 

Beets 4 

Blue grass, Kentucky 25 

12 

15 

3 

3 

12 
2- 



Brome grass (alone, for hay) , 

Brome grass (alone, for pasture) 

Broom corn 

Buckwheat 

Bur clover 

Carrots (for stock) 

Castor beans 

Clover, alsike (alone) 

Clover, Japan, or lespedeza (in pod) . . . 

Clover, mammoth 

Clover, red (on small grains in spring). 

Clover, sweet (melilotus) 

Clover, crimson 

Corn 



Cotton 

Cowpeas (broadcast) 

Cowpeas (drilled) 

Cowpeas (for seed) 

Duvea 

Emmer (miscalled spelt) . . . . 
Field peas (small varieties) . 

Field peas (large) 

Flax (for seed) 

F'lax (for fiber) 

Feterita 

Hemp (broadcast) 

Kafir (in rows) 

Kafir (broadcast) 

Lupines 

Mangels 

Meadow fescue 

Millet, barnyard (in drills) . . 
Millet, foxtail (in drills) .... 
Millet, German (in drills) . . . 
Millet, German (for seed) . . . 
Millet, Hungarian (for hay) . 
Millet, Hungarian (for seed) 



20 lbs. 

-16 lbs. 

10 pks. 

3 pks. 

- 6 pks. 

- 6 lbs. 
40 lbs. 
15 lbs. 

-20 lbs. 
5 lbs. 

5 pks. 
lbs. 

6 lbs. 



12 
8 
10 
10 
5 
4 
4- 
1- 

3- 
4- 

12- 
2- 
6- 

4- 
14- 

4- 
50- 

6- 

5- 

1- 
2- 
2- 



-15 lbs. 

2 pks. 
-15 lbs. 
-12 lbs. 
-20 lbs. 
-12 lbs. 

- 9 lbs. 
-12 pks. 

- 6 pks. 

- 2 pks. 

3 pks. 

■ 6 lbs. 

- 8 pks. 
10 pks. 

■14 pks. 

■ 3 pks. 

• 8 pks. 

• 6 lbs. 
•16 pks. 

• 8 lbs. 
80 lbs. 

• 8 pks. 
8 lbs. 

50 lbs. 

2 pks. 

3 pks. 
3 pks. 

1 pk. 

2 pks. 
1 pk. 



Pound ; 
to tl;e 
bushel. 



60 
60 
48 
60 
60 
56 
14 
14 
14 
30 
50 
50 
50 
46 
90 



60 
60 
60 
60 
56 
32 
60 
60 
60 
56 
43 
60 
60 
56 
56 
56 
44 
56 
56 
60 



22 
35 
50 
50 
50 
50 
50 



APPENDIX 
Seed Table for Field Crops — concluded 



455 



Name. 



Amount of seed 
to plant to 
the acre. 



Pounds 
to the 
bushel. 



Millet, pearl (for hay) 

Millet, broom-corn or proso 

Milo 

Oat grass, tall 

Oats 

Oats and peas — Oats 

— Peas 

Orchard grass 

Parsnips 

Peanuts (in pod) 

Pop corn 

Potato, Irish 

Potato (cut to one or two eyes) 

Potato, sweet 

Rape (in drills) 

Rape (broadcast) 

Red top (recleaned) 

Red top (in chaff) 

Rice (rough) 

Rutabaga 

Rye ■ 

Rye grass 

Sorghum (forage — broadcast) 

Sorghum (for seed or syrup) 

Sorghum (for silage or soiling — drilled) 

Soy beans (broadcast) 

Soy beans (drilled) 

Sudan grass (for hay) 

Sudan grass (for seed) 

Sugar beets 

Sunflower 

Timothy 

Timothy and clover — Timothy 

— Clover 

Turnips (broadcast) 

Turnips (drilled) 

Velvet beans 

Vetch, hairy (broadcast) 

Vetch, hairy (drilled) 

Wheat 



8-10 lbs. 
2- 3 pks. 
4- 6 lbs. 
30 lbs. 
8-12 pks. 
8 pks. 

2 pks. 
12-15 lbs. 

4- 8 lbs. 
8 pks. 

3 lbs. 
40-60 pks. 
24-36 pks. 

6-16 pks. 

2- 4 lbs. 
4- 8 lbs. 

12-15 lbs. 

50-60 lbs. 

4-12 pks. 

3- 5 lbs. 

3- 4 pks. 
8-12 pks. 

25-75 lbs. 

4- 8 lbs. 
6-15 lbs. 
4- 6 pks. 

2- 3 pks. 
20-25 lbs. 

3- 4 lbs. 
15-20 lbs. 
10-15 lbs. 
12-15 lbs. 

10 lbs. 

4 lbs. 
2- 4 lbs. 

1 lb. 

1- 4 pks. 
6 pks. 
4 pks. 

2- 8 pks. 



50 



56 
14 
32 
32 
60 
14 
50 
22 
70 
60 



50 
50 
50 
35 
12 
45 
60 
56 
20 
50 
50 
50 
60 
60 
28 
28 



45 



55 
55 



60 
60 
60 



456 



AGRICULTURE 



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APPENDIX 



457 



WEIGHT OF FEEDING STUFFS* 

The following table, showing the weight of a quart of each of u 
number of feeding stuffs, may be helpful in feeding farm animals: 



Feeding Stiffs. 



Weight. 



Pounds. Ounces 



Corn, cracked 

Corn meal 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Oats, whole 

Oats, ground 

Wheat, whole 

Wheat bran 

Wheat bran, coarse 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat middlings, coarse. 

Rye bran 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Linseed meal 

Cottonseed meal 



Some of these materials, especially by-products like wheat bran, 
vary considerably in weight, and the figures can not be regarded as 
strictly accurate for all cases. Weighing is, of course, always 
preferable w here it is desired to feed absolutely definite amounts. 

THE SIZE OF SILO TO BUILD 

The following table shows the size of silo required to feed various 
numbers of animals for a period of six months, or 180 days, at the 
rate of forty pounds of silage daily to the animal: 







Size of silo. 


Approximate acreage of corn required. 


Number 


Estimated 
capacity 










of 










cows. 


in tons. 


Diameter 
in feet. 


Height 
in feet. 


Eastern Kansas. 


Western Kansas. 


7 


20 


10 


20 


2 - 2.5 


4- 5 


13 


47 


10 


30 


3-5 


6-10 


H 


r.i 


10 


32 


3 . 5- 5 .') 


7-11 


lit 


(iS 


12 


30 


4.5- 7 


9-14 


21 


73 


12 


32 


5 - 7 .') 


10-15 


2.5 


93 


14 


30 


- 9 


12-18 


27 


1(11 


14 


32 


7 -10 


14-20 


30 


109 


14 


34 


8 -11 


16-22 


33 


119 


16 


30 


S.5-12 


17-24 


36 


131 


10 


32 


9 -13 


18-26 


40 


143 


16 


34 


9.5,14 


19-28 


43 


1.55 


16 


36 


10.5-15.5 


21-31 


46 


166 


18 


32 


11 -10 5 


22-33 


50 


181 


IS 


34 


12 -18 


24-36 


54 


19G 


IS 


36 


13 -20 


26-40 



*From Farmers' Bulletin No. 22 



458 AGRICULTURE 

DIRECTIONS FOR MEASURING FARM PRODUCTS 
I. Measuring Grain in the Bin 

Rule: Multiply together the number of feet in length, 
width, and depth, and take four-fifths of the result, which 
will be the number of bushels. 

II. Measuring Ear Corn in the Crib 

Rule: Multiply together the number of feet in length, 
width, and depth, and divide the result by two and one- 
half to get the number of bushels. Note: It is usual to 
calculate a bushel of ear corn in the crib as two and one- 
half cubic feet if the corn is dry, but if it is new and 
recently stored, two and five-eighths to two and three- 
quarters cubic feet should be allowed. 

III. Measuring Hay in the Mow or Stack 

If alfalfa hay has been stacked or stored in the mow 
about thirty days, 512 cubic feet are usually regarded as a 
ton. If the hay has stood five or six months 422 cubic 
feet, and if it is fully settled 343 cubic feet, will approxi- 
mate a ton. In very large stacks or deep mows, fully 
settled, 216 cubic feet are taken for a ton. Hence, to find 
the number of tons: 

(1) In a mow: Multiply together the number of feet in 
length, width, and depth, and divide the result by the 
number of cubic feet in a ton. 

(2) In a round stack: Find the circumference of the 
stack at a height that will give a fair average distance 
around the stack; also find the vertical height of the 
measured circumference from the ground, and the slant 
height from the measured circumference to the top of the 
stack. Take all measurements in feet. Square the number 
of feet in the circumference; divide this by 100 and multi- 
ply it by 8; then multiply the result by the number denot- 



APPENDIX 459 

ing the height of the base plus one-third the number 
denoting the slant height. The result is the number of 
cubic feet, which, if divided by the number of cubic feet in 
a ton, will give the number of tons. 

(3) In a rick: Measure the distance in feet over the 
rick from the ground on one side to the ground on the 
other, also measure the width in feet near the ground. 
Add the two numbers and divide the result by 4 ; square 
this result and multiply it by the number denoting the 
length of the rick. Divide the final result by the number 
of cubic feet in a ton, which will give the number of tons 
in the rick. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MEASURING LAND 

To measure a square or a rectangular field, multiply 
the number of rods in length by the number of rods in 
width and divide the result by 160 to find the number of 
acres. If the field is a right triangle, follow the same rule, 
but take one-half of the original product and divide it 
by 160. 

The area of any triangular-shaped field where the 
lengths of the sides are known can be found by the follow- 
ing rule: From one-half the sum of the number of rods 
in the sides, subtract separately the number of rods in 
each side. Multiply the half sum and the three remainders 
and extract the square root of the product. Divide the 
result by 160 to obtain the number of acres. 

The area of an irregular-shaped field may be found by 
dividing the field into triangles by means of diagonals, 
finding the areas of the triangles, and then adding the 
areas found. 



INDEX 



Alfalfa, 103 ff., 159, 233-235, 415, Birds—concluded 



454; growth, 105-106; varie- 
ties, 106-107; seed bed, 107- 
108; seeding, 108-110; har- 
vesting, 110-111; seed produc- 
tion, 111; effect on soil, 112. 

Apples, 381 ff., 392. 

Apple aphid, 374, 375. 

Apple blotch, 338. 

Ash, 211. 

Asparagus, 5. 

Babcock test, 451-453. 

Bacteria, 174, 333-335. 

Barley, 31, 87-88 ff., 341, 454; 
covered smut, 341; loose 
smut, 341. 

Barnyard manure, 175-178. 

Beans, 30, 35, 37, 103, 174, 406, 
408, 454, 456. 

Beef cattle, 242 ff., 451; in Kan- 
sas, 243; the ideal beef animal, 
244-248; breeds, 248-249; divi- 
sions of industry, 250-255; 
producing pure-bred cattle, 
251; producing stockers and 
feeders, 251-252; grazing cat- 
tle, 253; fattening cattle, 254- 
255. 

Beets, 407, 454, 456. 

Bindweed, 7, 8. 

Birds, 370-371, 425 ff.; when 
birds are helpful, 426-427; 
protectors of the orchard, 427- 



428; protectors of the field 
and garden, 428; other bird 
friends, 428-430; protecting 
and encouraging birds, 430. 
I Blackberries, 138, 402-403. 
I Books for reference, 449-451. 
I Broom corn — see Sorghums. 
I Brown plum louse, 374. 

Brown rot, 338. 

Brussels sprouts, 131-133. 

Buckwheat, 41, 454. 

Buds, 26, 28. 

Buffalo grass, 16. 

Bush fruits, 402-403. 

Butter making, 295. 

Cabbage, 131-133, 406, 456. 

Cabbage butterfly, 362-363. 

Cabbage yellows, 339. 

Canadian thistle, 8, 9. 

Canna, 20. 

Carbohydrates, 211 ff. 

Carrots, 406, 408, 454, 456. 

Castor beans, 454. 

Cats, 140. 

Cattle, 140-141, 207; see, also, 
Beef cattle. Dairying. 

Cauliflower, 406. 

Celery, 456. 

Chard, 406. 

Cherries, 381, 385. 

Chickens — see Poultry. 

Chinch bug, 349-350. 



(461) 



462 



INDEX 



Chlorophyll, 23 fF. 

Clover, 112 S., 454; red, 112- 
113, 454; crimson, 113, 454, 
455; mammoth, 113-114, 454; 
alsike, 114, 454; sweet, 114- 
115, 454; white, 115; bur, 115, 
454; Japan, 115, 454. 

Codling moth, 365-366, 398. 

Cold frames, 409-410. 

Colorado potato beetle, 358-359. 

Concentrates, 25, 209-210. 

Corn, 42 ff., 133, 265-266, 341, 
454; kinds, 42-44; varieties 
adapted to Kansas, 44-46; 
home-grown seed, 46-47; se- 
lecting seed, 47-49; storing 
seed, 49-50; testing seed, 50- 
52; decrease in yield, 52-53; 
preceding crops, 53; planting, 
53-57; plowing for, 55-56; 
cultivation, 57-58; improving, 
135-136; smut, 341. 

Corn-ear worm, 350-352. 

Cotton, 31, 342, 454; wilt of, 
339. 

( -ottonwoods, 17. 

Cowpeas, 115 ff., 386, 454; 
growth, 116-117; seed-bed 
preparation, 117; seeding, 117- 
118; cultivation, 118; harvest- 
ing, 118; for green manuring, 
119; wilt, 339, 343-344. 

Crab grass, 4. 

Cucumbers, 456. 

Dairying, 285 S., 451-453; in- 
creasing milk production, 285- 
286; selection of dairy cows, 
286; types, 286-287; records, 
287-288; breeds, 288-291; Jer- 
seys, 289; Guernseys, 289-291 ; 



Dairying — concluded. 

Ayrshires, 291; Holsteins, 291- 
292; feeding the cow, 292-293; 
stabling, 293; milking, 293- 
294; separating milk, 294-295; 
butter making, 295; silos and 
silage, 295-300; kinds of silos, 
296-297; the pit silo, 297-299; 
feeding silage, 299-300; the 
Babcock test, 451-453. 

Digestion, 211-214. 

Diseases of live stock, 266-267; 
hogs, 315 ff.; what causes dis- 
ease, 315-316; kinds of disease, 
316-317; how diseases spread, 
317; disinfection, 318-320. 

Diseases of plants, 332 ff., 375- 
376; kinds, 332; parasitic 
plants, 332-336; bacteria and 
fungi, 333-336; pruning, 336; 
pear blight, 336-337; spraying, 
337; early blight of potatoes, . 
337-338; apple blotch, 338; 
brown rot, 338; crop rotation, 
338-339; dry rot of potatoes, 
339; seed treatment, 339-340; 
smuts of grain, 340-341; 
potato scab, 341; resistant 
varieties, 341-342; grain rusts, 
342-343; wilt of cowpeas, 343- 
344. 

Dodder, 333. 

Dogs, 140. 

Drainage, 183 ff.; lands requiring 
drainage, 183-184; surface 
drainage, 184-185; ditches, 
185-186; underdrainage, 186; 
tile drains, 186-189; drainage 
systems, 189-191; construc- 
tion methods, 191; the action 



INDEX 



463 



Drainage — concluded. 
of tile drainage, 191-192; 
benefits of drainage, 192-193. 

Ducks — see Poultry. 

Duvea, 454. 

Eggs — see Poultry. 

Egg plant, 406. 

Emmer, 88-89, 454. 

Epidermis, 6. 

Fat, 211 ff. 

Feeding farm animals, 207 ff.; 
plants, 207; maintenance, 207- 
208; growth and fattening, 
208; work, 208-209; milk, 209; 
concentrates and roughages, 
209-210; feeding values, 210; 
composition of animal bodies, 
211; digestion of feeds, 211- 
214; kinds of nutrients, 214; 
nutritive value of feeds, 215; 
ration, 216; effect of different 
rations, 217; amount of feed, 
217-218; the feeder's duty, 
218; preparation of feeds, 218- 
219; silage, 295-300; see, also. 
Horses, Beef cattle, etc. 

Flax, 89; wilt of, 339. 

Flowers and fruits, 28 ff.; parts 
of flower, 28-30; how flowers 
differ, 30-33; pollination, 33- 
34; fertilization, 34. 

Foxtail, 4. 

Fruits — see Flowers and fruits, 
Orcharding. 

Fungi, 20, 332, 333-336. 

Geese — see Poultry. 

Goldenrod, 5. 

Good roads, 431 ff.; importance, 
431-433; locating roads, 433- 
434; width, 434-436; classi- 



Good roads — concluded. 

fication, 436; expenditures, 
436-437; management, 437- 
439; drainage, 439-440; earth 
road construction, 440-443 ; 
using the grader, 441-443; 
earth road maintenance, 443- 
445; bridges and culverts, 445- 
446. 

Gooseberries, 402-403. 

Grapes, 134, 135, 138-139, 
398-400. 

Grasses, 101, 122 ff., 207, 455; 
native, 122-123; tame, 123- 
124; Kentucky blue, 125,454; 
Bermuda, 125-126; mixtures 
for pastures, 126-127; meadow 
fescue, 127-128, 454; brome 
grass, 128, 454; western rye 
grass, 128; redtop, 128, 455; 
seeding of grass, 129; orchard, 
455; rye grass, 455; oat grass, 
455. 

Green manure, 180-181. 

Hay, 111, 112-115; cowpea 
hay, 118; the hay ration, 234- 
236. 

Hemp, 454. 

Hessian fly, 352-355. 

Hogs, 140-141; 207, 257 ff., 451; 
history, 257; types, 257-260; 
breeds, 260-265; Duroc Jersey, 
260-262; Poland China, 262; 
Berkshire, 262-263; Chester 
White, 263; Hampshire, 263- 
264; Large Yorkshire, 264- 
265; Tamworth, 265; feeding, 
265-266; sanitation, 266-267; 
judging, 267-270; meat on the 
farm, 270-275; slaughtering, 



464 



INDEX 



Hogs — concluded. 

270; scalding, 272; cutting, 
272; curing, 272-273; plain salt 
pork, 273-274; smoking meats, 
274; keeping smoked meats, 
274-275; pork sausage, 275. 

Home grounds. Beautifying, 416 
ff.; shrubs, 417-418; vines, 
418-419; grasses, 419; trees. 
419-420; flower gardens, 420- 
422; flower beds, 422-423. 

Horses, 140, 207, 221 ff., 451 
value in Kansas, 221; origin 
221-222; classification, 222 
breeds, 222-233; Percheron 
222-223; French draft, 224 
Belgian draft, 224-225; Shire 
225-226; Clydesdale, 226-227 
Suffolk, 227-228; Hackney 
228; German coach, 228 
French coach, 228; Cleveland 
bay, 228; Yorkshire, 228 
Standard-bred, 229; Morgan 
229; Orloff, 230; Arabian, 230 
Thoroughbred, 230; American 
Saddle, 231-233; Hackney 
ponies, 232; Welsh ponies, 
232; Shetland ponies, 232- 
233; feeding horses, 233-236; 
grain, 233-234; hay, 234-235; 
soundness and unsoundness, 
236-238; judging horses, 238- 
241. 

Hotbeds, 408-409. 

Humus, 178 ff. 

Improving plants and animals, 
131 ff.; variation, 131-133; 
selection, 133-135; improving 
corn, 135-136; wheat, 136- 
137; hybridization, 137-140; 



Improving plants and animals — 
concluded. 
animal improvement, 140 ff.; 
pure breeds, 140-141; crossing, 
141-142. 

Insects on farm, 345 ff.; harmful 
and helpful, 345; structure 
and growth, 346; how insects 
eat, 346; changes in form, 
347-349; the chinch bug, 349- 
350; corn-ear worm, 350-352; 
Hessian fly, 352-355; grass- 
hoppers, 355-358; Colorado 
potato beetle, 358-359; melon 
louse, 359-361; cabbage but- 
terfly, 362-363; San Jose scale, 
363-365; codling moth, 365- 
366, 398; useful insects, 366- 
368; preventing and con- 
trolling insect injuries, 368- 
371; cleanliness, 368; fall 
plowing and disking, 368-369; 
place and time of planting, 
369-370; crop rotation, 369- 
370; soil preparation, 370; 
poultry and other birds, 370- 
371. 

Ironweed, 5. 

Jerusalem corn — see Sorghums. 

Johnson grass, 16, 17, 21, 129. 

June bug, 400. 

Kafir — see Sorghums. 

Kaoliang — see Sorghums. 

Kohl-rabi, 131, 133. 

Leaves, 22 ff.; structure, 22-23. 

Legumes, 101 ff., 173-175, 180- 
181; description, 101; import- 
ance, 101-103; inoculation of 
soil, 103. 

Lespedeza, 115. 



INDEX 



465 



Lettuce, 406, 407, 409. 456. 

Lime and liming, 181-182. 

Lucerne — see Alfalfa. 

Lupines, 454. 

Mangels, 454. 

Measuring farm products, 458- 
459. 

Meat on the farm — see Hogs. 

Melon louse, 359-361. 

Milk — see Dairying. 

Millet, 218, 454-455; smut of, 
340. 

Milling — see Wheat. 

Milo — see Sorghums. 

Minerals used by plants, 11-12, 
14. 

Mistletoe, 333. 

Morning-glories, 13. 

Mulberries, 31. 

Mycelium, 335. 

Nitrogen, 101-103, 173-175, 181- 
182. 

Nutrients, 210-214, 266. 

Oats, 85 S., 340, 455; types, 86; 
preparation of the ground, 
86-87; seeding, 87; smut of, 
340. 

Onions, 4-5, 381, 407, 456. 

Oranges, 134. 

Orcharding, 377 ff.; climate, 378; 
soil and moisture, 378; sub- 
soil, 378-379; sites, 379-380; 
selecting fruits, 380; meaning 
and origin of varieties, 380- 
382; adaptability of variety, 
382; securing trees of a 
variety, 382-384; choice of 
varieties for Kansas, 384; 
apples, 384-385; cherries, 385; 
plums, 385; peaches, 385; age 



Orcharding — concluded. 

of trees for planting, 385-386; 
preparation of ground, 386- 
387; ordering and planting 
trees, 387; caring for young 
trees, 387-388; pruning, 388- 
394; tools, 389-390; pruning 
to secure fruit, 390; pruning 
the peach, 391; summer prun- 
ing, 391-394; cropping and 
cultivating the young orchard, 
394-396; fertilizers, 396-397; 
general care, 397-398. 

Parsnips, 406, 408, 454, 456. 

Pasture, 69, 83, 112-115, 284. 

Parasites, 40, 332-336. 

Peaches, 381, 385, 391. 

Peanuts, 455. 

Pear blight, 336-337. 

Pears, 159, 456. 

Peas, 406, 407, 408, 454. 

Phosphorus, 173. 

Pigweed, 4, 6. 

Plants, 4 ff.; 35 ff.; parts, 4-5; 
structure, 5-6; cells, 6; multi- 
plication, 35 ff.; spore plants, 
39-40; propagation, 40; cul- 
ture, 41; see, also, Roots, 
Stems, Leaves, Flowers and 
fruits. Seeds, Improving 
plants and animals. 

Plant diseases — see Diseases of 
plants. 

Plumcots, 139. 

Plums, 159, 381, 385. 

Pollination, 29, 33-34. 

Popcorn, 455. 

Potassium, 173. 

Potatoes, 337 ff., 406, 411 ff., 
455; early blight of, 337- 



466 



INDEX 



Potatoes — concluded. 

338; scab, 341; dry rot of, 339: 
growing potatoes in Kansas, 
411-412; selecting seed, 412- 
413; planting, 413; cultiva- 
tion, 413-414; mulching, 414: 
digging, 414-415; storing, 415. 

Poultry, 207, 302 ff., 370-371, 
451; kinds, 302; classification, 
302-306; houses, 306-307; sav- 
ing eggs for hatching, 307; 
running an incubator, 307- 
309; brooding, 309; feeding 
chickens, 309-313; kinds of 
feed, 310; supplements, 310- 
311; rations for laying hens, 
311-312; feeding chicks, 312- 
313; caring for market eggs, 
313-314. 

Prunes, 134. 

Pruning, 336, 388-394, 402. 

Protein, 211 ff., 266, 283. 

Pumpkins, 30-31, 394. 

Quack grass, 21. 

Radishes, 407, 409, 456. 

Ragweed, 8. 

Rape, 455. 

Raspberries, 40, 394, 402. 

Resistant varieties, 341-342, 
343-344. 

Rhubarb, 21. 

Rice, 41, 455. 

Roads — see Good roads. 

Roots, 7 ff.; work, 8; growth, 
8-9; hairs, 9-11; getting water 
and mineral matter from soil, 
11-14. 

Rootstocks, 16, 17. 

Rotation of crops, 338-339, 370. 

Roughage, 25, 209-210. 



Russian thistle, 4. 

Rusts of grain, 342-343. 

Rutabaga, 455. 

Rye, 218, 455. 

Salsify, 408, 456. 

San Jose scale, 363-365. 

Saprophytes, 335. 

Seeds, 35 ff.; germination, 35- 
36; seed bed, 36-37; storing, 
38-39; testing, 39; treatment 
of, 339-340, 341. 

Sheep, 140, 207, 276 if., 451; 
history, 276-277; breeds, 277- 
281; fine-wooled, 278; me- 
dium-wooled, 278-279; 
long-wooled, 280-281; han- 
dling sheep, 281; judging, 281- 
283; feeding, 283-284. 

SUos, 295-300, 457. 

Smuts of grain, 340-341. 

Soil, 370. 

Soil formation, 149 ff.; soil and 
subsoil, 149-150; action of 
water, 151-152; of air, 152; 
of ice, 152-153; of heat and 
cold, 153; of plants and ani- 
mals, 153-154; soils formed 
from plants, 154-155; trans- 
portation of soils, 155; soils 
formed by water, 155; soils 
formed by wind, 155-156; 
soils formed by ice, 156; types 
of soils, 156-159; soil mass, 
156,157; sandy soils, 157- 
158; clay soils, 158-159; loam 
soils, 159; soils of Kansas, 159- 
160. 

Soil improvement, 173 ff., 450: 
leguminous crops, 173-175: 
commercial fertilizers, 175; 



INDEX 



467 



Soil improvement — concluded. 
manure, 175-178; humus, 
178-182; fertilizers, 396-397. 

Soil water, 162 ff.; free, 162-163; 
film, 163-166; increasing 
water-holding capacity, 166- 
167; dry farming, 167-168; 
erosion, 16S-171. 

Sorghums, 59 ff., 340, 454, 455; 
present importance, 59-60; 
introduction, 60-61; descrip- 
tion, 61-62; habits of growth, 
62; saccharine and non- 
saccharine, 62-63; seed bed, 
64; planting, 64-66; cultiva- 
tion, 66; harvesting, 66-67; 
storing, 67; threshing, 67-68; 
improvement, 68; pasturing, 
69; sorghum regions of Kan- 
sas, 69-70; kernel smut of, 
340. 

Soy beans, 119-120, 455. 

Speltz — see Emmer. 

Spinach, 406, 407, 456. 

Spores, 39-40, 335-336. 

Spraying, 337, 338, 372 ff.; 
sprays, 372; Bordeaux mix- 
ture, 373; what insecticides 
to use, 373-375; spraying for 
fungous diseases, 375; spray- 
ing equipment, 375-376; Colo- 
rado potato beetle, 372; cod- 
ling moth, 373; San Jose scale, 
374; melon louse, 374. 

Squash, 394, 406, 456. 

Stems, 16 ff.; purpose, 16; 
structure, 16-18; thickening, 
18; injuries, 19; storage of 
food, 19-20; underground, 20- 
21. 



Stolons, 16. 

Storage, 67. 

Strawberries, 138, 139, 381, 394, 
400-402. 

Study of agriculture, reasons for, 
1 ff. 

Sudan grass, 455. 

Sugar beets, 455. 

Summer fallowing, 168. 

Sunflowers, 4, 5, 455. 

Sweet clover, 6, 7, 37. 

Sweet corn, 456. 

Sweet potatoes, 406, 408, 455. 

Teacher, Suggestions to, 447- 
449. 

Timothy, 127, 455. 

Tobacco, root rot of, 339. 

Tomatoes, 133-134, 394, 406. 
409, 456. 

Trees, Growing and caring for, 
322 ff.; conifers, 322-323; 
broadleaf trees, 323-324; size 
of trees for planting, 324-325; 
how to plant, 325-326; time of 
planting, 326; cultivation, 
326-327; protection, 327-328; 
trees suitable for Kansas, 329- 
330; see, also, Home grounds. 
Orcharding. 

Turkeys^see Poultry. 

Turnips, 407, 415, 455, 456. 

Vegetable gardening, 404 ff., 
450; site, 404-405; care, 405- 
406; planning, 406; selecting 
crops, 406-408; hotbeds, 408- 
409; cold frames, 409-410; 
transplanting, 410-411, 

Vetch, 455. 

Water used by plants, 11-14. 

Watermelons, 30. 



468 



INDEX 



Weeds, 143 ff., 283-284; classes, 
143-147; barnyard weeds,146: 
field and garden weeds, 146- 
147; pasture weeds, 147-148. 

Weight of feeding stuffs, 457. 

Wheat, 72 ff., 91 ff., 101, 133- 
138, 330 ff.,455; history, 72-73; 
tillering, 73-74; types, 74-76; 
varieties, 76; preparation of 
the ground, 76-77; plowing, 
77-79; listing, 79-80; seed, 80- 
81; seeding, 81-83; harvesting, 



' Wheat — concluded. 

83, 91-92; pasturing, 83; 
sweat, 92-93; milling Kansas 
wheats, 93-95; flour machin- 
ery, 95 ff.; cleaning, 96-97; 
scouring, 97; tempering, 97- 
98; breaking, 98; sifting or 
bolting, 98; purifying, 98-99; 
reducing, 99; total production, 
99-100; stinking smut, 340; 
loose smut, 341, 342; rust, 
342-343. 



iil'^'HIIIIIil 




